Depression: A Critical Evaluation of Different Treatment Methods

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Running head DEPRESSION

Depression A Critical Evaluation of

Different Treatment Methods

Karen Upham

Cheap custom writing service can write essays on Depression: A Critical Evaluation of Different Treatment Methods

The University of Southern Queensland

Depression A Critical Evaluation of

Different Treatment Methods

Depressive disorders are commonly diagnosed in western cultures. Mood disorders impair individuals of all ages and gender, social, occupational and personal functioning (Olfson et al 00). Causes of depression range from biological, psychological and social factors (Feldman & Feldman, 17). In its mildest form depression may present as a passing period of sadness following a personal disappointment or loss (Burton, 00). Clinical depression occurs when depressive symptoms persist for a long period of time and are severe enough to merit professional help (Burton). Depression is characterised by feelings of sadness, shame, guilt, anxiety, helplessness, and hopelessness, accompanied by symptoms such as insomnia, loss of energy, enthusiasm, poor self-image, changes in appetite, and for some, thoughts of suicide (Feldman & Feldman). This essay evaluates three treatments of depression in adults psychotherapy, pharmacotherapy, and group treatments. Research evidence indicates that each modality has particular strengths and weaknesses. It will argue that whilst these treatments are effective, an integration of both psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy are complementary treatments for depression (Feldman & Feldman).

Psychotherapy is the treatment of emotional disorders by psychological means. It involves the verbal interaction between a trained professional therapist and a patient with emotional or behavioural problems. Using non-drug techniques based on established psychological principles, the therapist helps the patient identify and change maladaptive thoughts, feelings, and behaviour or adjust to problems in living (Rathus, 00).

Types of psychotherapy have proved effective in the treatment for depression for individuals, couples, and groups, targeting the underlying factors associated with depression (Feldman & Feldman, 17). Comparative efficacy research indicates that Cognitive, Interpersonal, and Behaviour Therapy are effective treatments for depression, particularly when symptoms are mild or moderate in severity (Beach, Whisman, & O'Leary, 14; Hollon, 1; Karasu, 14; Scogin & McElreath, 14, as cited in Feldman & Feldman).

Cognitive therapy focuses on cognitive functioning by helping clients alter irrational thinking and beliefs. Techniques encompass challenging irrational thoughts and cognitions to reduce depressive symptoms, by generating more productive and accurate thoughts, reducing emotional stress (Feldman & Feldman, 17).

Alternatively Interpersonal therapy enhances understanding in relationships using empathy skills to allow clients grief and loss issues to be resolved (Feldman & Feldman, 17). Another technique, Behaviour therapy aims to change behaviour by building coping strategies and appropriate social skills (Feldman & Feldman).

According to Feldman and Feldman (17) cognitive, behaviour and interpersonal therapies are limited when depressive symptoms are severe. Especially when significant disturbances of sleep, appetite, or concentration exist (Elkin et al., 18; Robinson, Berman, & Neimeyer, 10; Thase et al., 14 as cited in Feldman & Feldman). Therapists are unable to engage patients who are too tired, dominated by obsessional thinking or consumed with feelings of hopelessness (Feldman & Feldman). Furthermore, depending on the client's ability for example, cognitive therapy is limited for intellectually impaired people.

Another treatment option is Pharmacotherapy, which uses medication as the primary intervention for treating patients. As depression maybe a biological disorder it often requires medication to overcome chemical imbalances to stabilise moods. Drug therapies such as tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) or Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRI's) have proved effective in treating depression (Kennedy, Lam, Cohen, Rowindran & Canmat, 001). In most instances it takes one to three weeks before the benefits of medication become apparent, relieving depressive symptoms such as sleep or appetite disturbance, fatigue, concentration difficulties, irritability, and obsessional thinking (Feldman & Feldman 17).

Up until the 10s, TCAs were the most frequently prescribed antidepressants (Ainsworth, 000). However, in a review article Ainsworth (000) points out the potential side effects of tricyclic antidepressants. Side effects can include dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, dizziness, increased appetite and weight gain, sleep disturbance, high blood pressure, severe headaches, strokes and even death (Ainsworth). Sexual side effects have commonly included low libido and orgasm or ejaculatory impairment (Kennedy, Lam, Cohen, Ravindran & CANMAT, 001). Moreover, TCAs are often common agents used in suicide by poisoning (Ainsworth). SSRIs are a newer, safer antidepressant. However side effects can include; agitation, sleep disruption, nausea, weight gain and sexual problems (Kennedy et al.).

Research indicates depressive relapse can also occur when treatment is stopped (Greden, 1; Rush, 1 as cited in Mundt, Clark, Burroughs, Brenneman & Griest, 001). However, inadequate dose, duration and medication compliance is often the cause of relapse (Katzelnick, Kobak, Jefferson, Greist & Henk, 16, as cited in Mundt et al.). Patients may stop medication due to the lessening of depressive symptoms, side effects, costs, and peer pressure (Mundt et al.).

A study involving two hundred forty-six depressed outpatients, claimed successful treatment of depression of seventy percent of patients who complied with treatment (Mundt et al., 001). Participants were prescribed antidepressants and randomly received educational materials by mail. These patients were assessed at baseline, four, twelve, and thirty weeks later for depressive severity and functional impairment. Medication compliance was analysed by prescription fill date and results indicated that medical compliance is crucial to the effectiveness of pharmacotherapy (Mundt et al.).

A comparison of surveys in the United States between 187 and 17 indicate greater use and tolerance of newer antidepressants versus psychotherapy treatment (Olfson et al., 00). Participants were outpatients who had one or more visits for depression (Olfson et al.). Outcome measures were based on rate of treatment, psychotropic medication, use, psychotherapy, number of visits, type of service and payment (Olfson et al.). However alternative explanations of these findings show that pharmacotherapy is a faster, easier and cheaper alternative to psychotherapy. Results indicate third-party payment coverage, faster methods of diagnosing depression and accessibility of antidepressants in clinical practice (Olfson et al.). These results are valid but limited due to these findings. Therefore pharmacotherapy as a single modality to psychotherapy has no advantage.

Group treatment is an alternative approach to pharmacological therapy, often employing psychotherapy intervention, in a supportive, sharing environment. Group treatments vary in size and structure involving a small number of participants, a facilitator and co-facilitator. Structured groups emphasise learning using cognitive and behavioural interventions, or alternatively less structured groups offer a supportive environment for participants struggling with depression (Rice, 001).

Past research indicates group treatments are an effective modality for the treatment of depression (Lewinsohn, Steinmetz, Antonuccio, & Teri, 185; Marshall & Mazie, 187; Neimeyer & Feixas, 10; Teri & Lewinsohn, 186; Yost, 186, as cited in Rice, 001). While recent study indicates the effectiveness of psychotherapeutic group treatments for depression in comparison to pharmacological therapy alone (Rice).

Rice (001) did a comparative study using three group treatments. One group used a structural treatment model, another group used alterative group therapy and a control group was medicated while on a waiting list (Rice). Groups were compared using seven outcome measures on fifty-nine participants at an outpatient community mental health centre (Rice). Participants consisted of middle-aged, isolated, unemployed single women in severe depression (Rice). Outcomes for the treatment groups showed an improvement in symptoms. The structured group improved on five of the seven measures compared to the controlled wait-list, while the alternative group improved on only two (Rice). The depressive symptoms of the control wait-list group although medicated (using pharmacotherapy) deteriorated during the study (Rice).

The effectiveness of the structured group appears to have been more beneficial as cognitive and behavioural interventions were used. These interventions addressed depressive thinking patterns and problematic interpersonal relationships (Rice, 001). Participants learnt relaxation and social skills, and to engage in more pleasant activities. Whereas the alternative brief group although beneficial only offered support, sharing and emotional encouragement (Rice). Whilst group treatment appears to be beneficial for depression, this study is limited as participants only represent a minority of the population who benefited by the social contact the group provided (Rice). However findings indicate age or work did not contribute to the differences in outcome measures (Rice). Results indicate that medication without group work or psychotherapy is not effective (Rice).

All group treatments appear effective by reducing general distress levels and providing social contact. However, educational group treatments are more effective in reducing depressive thinking patterns and interpersonal relationships. Research indicates group treatments increase self-esteem, social contact and perceived support lead to a reduction in levels of depression and associated symptoms (Evans & Connis, 15; Piper, McCallum, & Azim, 1, as cited in Rice, 001). However group treatment may be unsuitable for uncooperative clients and those who cannot work with others. Furthermore, depressed clients are often unmotivated to attend group therapy and may need pharmacotherapy to relieve depressive symptoms. Group treatment is therefore an effective treatment for depression, but further research needs to look at a wider cross-section of the population and include follow-up research for short-term or long-term effectiveness.

Studies agree Psychotherapy, Pharmacotherapy and Group treatments are effective modalities for depression. Psychotherapy whether individual or group treatment offers client-healing relationships, encourages client insight and change from maladaptive thoughts, feelings and behaviour (Feldman & Feldman, 17). However, individual (psychotherapy) and group treatments are best suited to low or moderate depression. Nevertheless effectiveness is dependent on client choice and suitability. Pharmacotherapy is an effective approach to the treatment of depressive symptoms. However, given the negative side effects pharmacotherapy is suitable for short-term treatment furthermore does not address underlying psychological factors. Therefore the best approach would be an integration of psychotherapy or group treatment and pharmacotherapy, as the strengths of each approach strengthen and enhance the potency of the others (Feldman & Feldman).

References

Ainsworth, P. (000). Understanding depression. MS University Press

of Mississippi.

Burton, L. J. (00). Foundation psychology A. introductory book. Toowoomba,

Queensland, Australia Distance Education Centre, The University of Southern Queensland.

Feldman, L. B., & Feldman, S. L. (17). Integrating psychotherapy and

pharmacotherapy in the treatment of depression. In Session Psychotherapy in Practice, , -8.

Kennedy, S. H., Raymond, R. W., Cohen,N. L., Ravindran, A. V., Canadian network

for mood and anxiety treatments (001). Clinical guidelines for the treatment of depressive disorders IV. Medications and other biological treatments. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 46, 8s-58s. Retrieved from EBSCOhost Database (AN 475508).

Mundt, J. C., Clark, G. N., Burroughts, D., Brenneman, D. O. and Griest, J. H. (001).

Effectiveness of antidepressant pharmacoptheray The impact of medication compliance and patient education. Depression and Anxiety, 1, 1-10.

Olfson, M., Marcus, S. C., Druss, B., Elinson, L., Tanielian, T. and Pincus, H. A.

(00). National trends in the outpatient treatment of depression. JAMA,

The Journal of the Americal Medical Association, 87, 1-15, Retrieved from Infotrac database.

Rathus, S. A. (00). Psychology in the new millennium (8th ed.). Orlando,

FL Harcourt College Publishers.

Rice, A. H. (001). Evaluating brief structured groups treatment of depression.

Research on Social Work Practice, 11, 5-78. Retrieved August 7, 00, from EBSCOhost database (AN 885508).

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Lab Report - Investigation of the pendulum

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SPH U An Investigation of the Pendulum Corey McCormick

Question What are the relationships between the frequency of a simple pendulum and its amplitude, and length?

Prior Knowledge

Variable SI Unit Definition

Amplitude cm Distance from the equilibrium position to the maximum displacement.

Frequency Hz

The number of cycles per second.

Label the amplitude and length of the pendulum below.

Materials

„h List the materials you have been given (and any other you decide to use)

1 A meter Stick

A 0cm ruler

A piece of tape

4 100cm+ of string

5 a washer

6 x desks

7 x chairs

Hypotheses

„h Complete the hypotheses before the experiment.

a) If the amplitude is increased, but the mass and length remain constant then the frequency will increase because the added amplitude allows the pendulum to gain more acceleration on the initial drop giving the pendulum a higher cycle per second rate (frequency).

b) If the length is increased, but the mass and amplitude remain constant then the frequency will decrease because the longer the length, the less of an initial drop the bob has. A smaller drop forbids the bob to gain as much speed as it would have been able to obtain with a higher initial drop coming from a shorter length.

Procedure

1) The washer was tied to one end of the string.

) The other end of the string was taped to the center of the meter stick which left exactly 0cm of string in between the center of the washer and the meter stick.

) The chairs were placed on top of the two desks, which had about 0cm of space in between each other.

4) Each end of the meter stick was placed on top of the two chairs which gave the pendulum sufficient open space to swing back and forth from the center of the meter stick without hitting the ground or anything around it.

5) For part A) The 0cm ruler was used to measure the various amplitudes 6, 10, 14, 18, , and 6cm that we were going to experiment with. Using the stopwatch, the time it took for our homemade pendulum to go through 0 cycles was recorded at each of the 6 amplitudes. This step was repeated to allow us to find an average time for each amplitude.

6) For part B) The 0cm ruler was used to shorten the pendulum¡¦s length from 0cm to 40 cm in 6 increments of 10cm after each reading. Using the stopwatch, the time it took for the pendulum to go through 0 cycles, at an amplitude of 10cm each time, (which was measured with the 0cm ruler) was recorded. This step was repeated to allow us to find an average time for each length.

7) The frequency was then calculated for each amplitude and for each length of part A and part B.

Results

Pendulum Length (cm) Amplitude (cm) Time for

0 Cycles (s) Frequency (Hz)

Time1 Time Average

Experiment

A

0 6 7.7 8.1 7. 0.58

10 7.4 8.1 7.8 0.5

14 8. 8. 8. 0.5

18 8. 7.7 8.0 0.56

8. 8.6 8.4 0.51

6 8. 8.4 8. 0.5

Experiment

B 0

10 8.1 8. 8. 0.54

80 6. 5.6 5. 0.557

70 .7 .1 . 0.608

60 1.4 1.6 1.5 0.64

50 8. 8.8 8.8 0.64

40 6. 6.8 6.5 0.755

Analysis,

1. Use graph paper to plot graphs of ¡§Frequency vs. Amplitude¡¨ and ¡§Frequency vs. Length¡¨ (see rules for graphing).

. Answer the lab question by describing the two relationships. Use complete sentences.

Change in Amplitude During my research, I came to realize that my original hypothesis was wrong. I was right when I said that with a larger amplitude there is a higher initial drop, giving the bob more time to accelerate, allowing the pendulum more speed. Although, I forgot that with a larger amplitude the pendulum has more distance to travel to make 1 cycle. I noticed that the extra speed gained by the pendulum from the larger amplitude somehow is proportional to the extra distance it has to travel to make 1 cycle, thus the frequency stayed constant with every change in amplitude.

The frequency is the same at any given amplitude (as long as the length remains unchanged).

Change in length While I investigated the pendulum, I came to realize that my original hypothesis was right. With a shorter length, the higher the initial drop is, allowing the pendulum more speed. Since I did not alter the amplitude at all during this part of the experiment, the pendulum¡¦s distance it had to travel to complete 1 cycle remained the same (10cm) with each recording.

Since a pendulum can obtain higher speeds with a shorter length, and altering the length does not affect the distance needed to travel to complete 1 cycle, I came to realize that the shorter the length is, the higher the frequency will be and vise versa.

) Identify at least thee good sources of error in the investigation (i.e. three ways you could improve the accuracy of this lab).

1) Using a stopwatch was not an accurate method of timing the experiment. When we hesitated even for 0.1 seconds when starting or stopping the timer, the readings of the experiment were affected. We should have used some sort of automatic machine to drop the washer, count its cycles, and time it. We would have had much more accurate readings than we did.

) Using a washer was not the best object we could have used for a bob. When the pendulum was swinging, the washer would spin on its own. Every time the washer faced the direction it was going in, there was more wind resistance than when it was facing sideways and cutting through the air. Every time the washer span around, there was that extra wind resistance which would slow the washer down just enough to minutely skew our readings. We should have used a rubber ball or anything else perfectly round so that the wind resistance would have been constant as the pendulum swung.

) Being in an open room, there was constantly air moving around which would either push with or push against the bob depending on the direction it was swinging in. If our pendulum were placed in an airtight box, then there would have been no moving air to create wind resistance, giving us more accurate readings.

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Wuthering heights Chapter 1

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Chapter 1 opens with Mr Lockwood arriving at Thrushcross Grange the property nearest Wuthering Heights. He visits Heathcliff, his landlord, and receives a cool reception after attempting to make conversation with him. Lockwood takes a strange amiability towards Heathcliff even though he is unwelcoming, stern and silent. "'Mr Heathcliff?' I said. A Nod was the answer". Victorians often visited one another as a form of entertainment so it is unusual for Heathcliff to be so uninviting. Lockwood is then left alone in the room with several viscous dogs that attack him. He is 'saved' by the housekeeper. Eventually, Heathcliff warms to Mr Lockwood, and offers "a glass of wine?". Even though the visit was not very sociable from the outset, he agreed to visit heathcliff the following day. From the first chapter, the reader can establish the character Heathcliff and his personality. He appears to have a tough, lonely exterior without embracing anyone around him perhaps because of what happened in his unknown past. Heathcliff's icy disposition, however, is still found attractive and amiable by Lockwood, "my heart warmed towards him", suggesting that he is strange for choosing to warm to people with displeasing characteristics. The tone of chapter 1 is optimistic and mysterious as the reader is unsure of the character Heathcliff, and why he must feel so isolated and unsociable. This mysterious side of the chapter links in with the definite gothic influences of the time, especially where Lockwood meets the child "spectre", as Heathcliff could be seen similar to a spirit with his "black eyes withdraw…suspiciously under their brows". This gothic influence can also be interpreted from the description of the exterior of Wuthering Heights "grotesque carving…crumbling griffins". Bronte describes in this way to heighten the eerie ambience of the estate, foreboding the appearance of Catherine. Bronte has been criticised for not forming strong character development but favouring atmosphere and tension; "The atmosphere of the book obscures the elements of character" W C Roscoe, July 1857. I disagree with this as in the short opening chapter she has made Heathcliff develop from his stern, armoured and reserved exterior into a welcoming, intellectual and sociable person. "I found him very intelligent".

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An investigation of the factors that affect photosynthesis.

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An investigation of the factors that affect photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis

sunlight

CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER GLUCOSE + OXYGEN

Order Custom Essay on An investigation of the factors that affect photosynthesis.

chlorophyll

6CO + 6HO C6H106 + 6O

What is Photosynthesis?

Photosynthesis is a chemical reaction occurring in the leaves of green plants. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use the energy from light, normally sunlight to produce glucose/sugar.

Photosynthesis needs chlorophyll, carbon dioxide (from the air), water (from the soil),

Sunlight energy (any light except green light.)

Diagram of a typical plant showing the inputs and outputs of photosynthesis

Carbon Dioxide

A plant cannot photosynthesis if there is an absence of CO. The concentration of CO affects the rate of photosynthesis, i.e. the more CO in the air the more can diffuse into the leaf.

Water

Is linked to the carbon dioxide factor because, when a plant lacks water their stomata close to prevent further water loss, at the same time, closing the stomata cells does not allow CO to diffuse into the leaf.

Temperature

The rate of photosynthesis will differ if the conditions are either too hot or too cold for the enzymes to work properly.

I will investigate the affect light intensity has on the rate of photosynthesis. I plan to measure the rate of photosynthesis by counting the amount of oxygen bubbles produced in a minute when the light intensity differs.

Aim

To investigate the affect light intensity has on the rate of photosynthesis.

Prediction

I predict that the further away the lamp i.e. the lower the light intensity the slower the

rate of photosynthesis i.e. the few bubbles produced. In photosynthesis sunlight provides energy, therefore the brighter the sunlight the more energy is trapped by chlorophyll in the leaves. This helps the build up process where carbon dioxide and hydrogen (in the water molecule) convert into glucose and oxygen. I also predict that light intensity will increase the rate of photosynthesis at a proportional rate where LI (light intensity) is inversely proportional to 1/d . d = distance (from light source to plant.) This is true to a certain point until another factor is limiting the rate of photosynthesis (Law of Limiting Factors.)

Possible methods

There are main separate methods that could be used to conduct this experiment. You could place a piece of elodea inside an inverted conical flask that is submerged in water, then on top you place an inverted measuring cylinder also full of water. After some time it is possible to record the volume of oxygen produced. However this experiment takes a very long time and is also quite complicated. After preliminary work I have decided to place a piece of elodea in a boiling tube filled with water, then place the boiling tube in a beaker of water and record the number of bubbles that are produced. From carrying out this experiment in a trial run I noticed that there are some improvements that can be noted to improve the accuracy of the results. Many bubbles were trapped on the side of the boiling tube so it is therefore necessary to clamp the boiling tube straight into the beaker. It is essential that the elodea leaves are cupped upwards. By cutting the top of the elodea and shaving a few millimeters of leaves one is able to standardise the bubbles. It is also sometimes necessary to weight the end of the elodea so it is always completely submerged by the water to do this clip a paper clip on the bottom of the elodea.

Factors to vary and to keep constant.

As we are investigating the affect of light intensity on photosynthesis it is necessary to ONLY vary the distance of the lamp i.e. the light intensity. All other factors

Ø Temperature

Ø Type of Plant will always be elodea. Different species of plants have different photosynthetic rates due to the different leaf structures of the plants.

Ø Size of elodea will be kept at 7 cm as an increase of size also increases the surface area for gas exchange.

Ø Amount of water will always be the same in the beaker.

Ø Amount of Carbon dioxide is kept constant by adding a fixed amount of sodium hydrogen carbonate to the beaker and plant. The experiment should be completed in one session and under hours so the plant does no use up a significant percentage of the CO.

Ø Light Wavelength (colour) is kept constant by always using the same lamp.

Will be kept constant.

Apparatus

Apparatus used

Ø Large beaker

Ø Boiling tube

Ø Lamp

Ø Elodea

Ø Thermometer

Ø Clamp stand

Ø Ruler

Ø Stop clock

Ø Paper clip

Ø Razor blade

Ø Sodium hydrogen carbonate

Fair Test

To ensure the investigation is made a fair test I will make sure the constant factors are kept constant throughout the experiment. I will record the number of bubbles produced at each position times in order to generate an average, and gain accurate results so accurate conclusions may be drawn. I will only start the stop clock when the first bubble has been produced i.e. so the elodea will acclimatise.

Safety

There are many safety precautions that must be obeyed whilst carrying out the experiment.

Ø Do not touch the electrical mains at any time

Ø Do not touch the light bulb

Ø Take extreme care when cutting the elodea with the razor blade

Ø Ensure all cuts are covered

Ø Wash hands after handling the elodea and pond water.

Method

1. Filled the beaker with 400ml of water.

. Filled the boiling tube with 40 ml of water.

. Clamped boiling tube over the beaker but it was covered with the water in beaker.

4. Cut a piece of elodea 7cm long with a razor blade.

5. Shaved the top of the elodea, exposing a clean cut, this standardises the bubble size.

6. Attach a paper clip to the end (that hasn't been shaved) of the elodea.

7. Place lamp 5cm away from beaker and switch on.

8. Place elodea into the boiling tube and add a small spatula of sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO.)

. Start stopwatch as soon as the first bubble is observed.

10. Timed for 1 minute.

11. Recorded number of bubbles produced in the first minute.

1. Move lamp 5cm away.

1. Timed for another minute and recorded amount of bubbles.

14. Moved lamp a further 5cm away.

15. Carried on timing for a minute, recording bubbles and moving lamp 5cm away until the lamp was 5cm away.

16. Repeated steps 10-15 twice.

17. Recorded all results in a table (see below)

18. Plot a graph which allows you to analyse the data.

Distance of Lamp (cm) No. bubbles of O produced (per min) in exp. 1 No. bubbles of O produced (per min) in exp. No. bubbles of O produced (per min) in exp. Average No. of bubbles of O produced (per min)

5 41 41 40 40.6'

10 1 1 1.6'

15 4 .'

0 16 18 18 17.'

5 1 14 1 1

Although I dismissed the other possible method of the inverted conical flask because it took a long time I set up the experiment and recorded it over a period of 48 hours. The results also back up the results obtained from the other method. This experiment although it takes a long time is more and accurate and scientific.

Distance from lamp (cm) Volume of O given off after 4 hours (cm) Volume of O given off after 48 hours (cm)

5 7

10 4.

15 1

0 0. 0.7

Analysis

From the results I have obtained. I can confidently say that an increase in light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis. The results prove my initial prediction to be correct. However my prediction that light intensity is inversely proportional to 1/d where d=distance was not completely true. The rule did exist as proven by the curved line but there was often quite a large margin of error.

Light energy is absorbed by pigments in the leaf known as chlorophyll. Chlorophyll easily absorbs blue light, in the 400-450nm range, and also easily absorbs red light in the 650-700 nm range. Chlorophyll does not absorb green or yellow light effectively but tends to reflect them, decreasing the amount of light absorbed and consequentially decreases the rate of photosynthesis. Why the rate of photosynthesis increased and decreased from the amount of light energy absorbed was investigated in the experiments.

When measuring light intensity in terms of distance the greater the distance the slower the rate of photosynthesis. When the lamp was 5cm from the elodea the average number of bubbles of oxygen produced was 40.6' and when the lamp was 5cm away form the elodea the average number of bubbles of oxygen produced was 1. While the rate of photosynthesis was decreasing, the rate at which it was decreasing at was also decelerating. This is shown in both graphs, in graph one where the line curves off at 15cm and in graph two where it curves off from the reciprocal at 1. The points at which the line curves off is due to the fact that there are other factors that limit the rate of photosynthesis. These factors do not immediately limit the rate of photosynthesis but gradually have an affect. As light intensity increases the photosynthetic rate is being limited by certain factors such as carbon dioxide and temperature. As light intensity increases further, these factors limit the rate of photosynthesis even more until photosynthesis is completely limited and the graphed line would become horizontal. This is when photosynthesis is being carried out at a constant rate, (this is known as the Law of Limiting Factors.)

Evaluation.

I feel that the experiment conducted was extremely successful since my initial predictions

were supported by my results. However this photosynthesis investigation was not performed very accurately, this was mainly due to the apparatus available and some controllable and uncontrollable. A large factor in determining data accuracy is the amount of human error during the experiments. I found that the rate of oxygen bubbles produced was sometimes so high it was hard to accurately record the number of oxygen bubbles produced. To limit this error and to improve accuracy I repeated the experiment times however to improve the accuracy further one would have to take further readings. The photosynthetic rate of the elodea would eventually decrease over time so further readings may not be completely accurate.

While performing the experiment some of the oxygen produced could have either dissolved in the water or been taken up by micro-organisms in the pond weed and water. Although the amount of oxygen that could have been used is probably insignificant to my results. Some oxygen is also used during the respiration of the elodea. The second experiment that measured the volume of oxygen produced, revealed more accurate results because many bubbles in the first experiment hit the side and were therefore lost. This experiment was only carried out to back up the results because at first it was going to be too time consuming.

During the high light intensities i.e. the nearer the lamp to the elodea, I experienced counting difficulties. During the lower intensities there were also factors which affected the accuracy, for example, the elodea received some more light energy from the background as sunlight could penetrate through the blinds and from the lamps of the other students. Therefore to eliminate the background light the experiment should be conducted in a totally dark room but even then some light could reflect off the table but this would probably be insignificant. The lamp used also controlled the temperature. The lamp should have been placed behind a glass block that would hopefully decrease the affect of temperature.

The method of the experiment could probably be improved to obtain more reliable results, due to the high rate of photosynthesis readings should be taken in a shorter period of time.

Due to the convenience of this experiment it could easily be modified to investigate other factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis. Varying the amount of sodium hydrogen carbonate would vary the levels of carbon dioxide. The plant would be kept at a constant distance form the lamp and a constant amount of water would be added to the sodium hydrogen carbonate. Another experiment using almost exactly the same apparatus would be to vary the colour of the light the plant absorbs. Using translucent colour filters in front of the lamps would vary this. I have already stated that light wave length/colour is a variable that affects the rate of photosynthesis. However there are no means to define/measure the colour of the light. Measuring the wave length is an option but the apparatus is not available. One could also investigate the temperature of water and determine what affect temperature has on the rate of photosynthesis. The lamps that we used were not the best as they projected the light rays over a large area, the distance from the lamp to the elodea was not always accurate, one way to minimise the human error would be to use lamps with dimmer switches. If this was a possible solution it would increase the accuracy of the light intensity.

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Bum

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movement as well as other actions.

Education was greatly influenced by Christianity during 1788 through to 100. Settlers concerned to leave religious divisions in Britain believed that ties between church and state should be eradicated and that churches be supported by their own followers. Subsequently, with numerous denominations supporting this idea, concerns were partly met by the granting of financial aid to the major religious groups, including the Church of England. Individuals churches used this aid to maximise its religious and educational influence. Governor Bourke later extended the state financial aid and attempted to introduce government schools based on the national system in his native Ireland. However, non-Anglican Protestants, who had formed in 185 a society for promoting schools where the Bible would be a basis for general education, insisted on its wider use in the proposed national schools than was permitted in the Irish system. Catholics supported the Governors proposal which further angered the Protestants. The successive alliance between the Anglicans and the Protestant denominations favourably brought about an anti-Catholic move to condemn concessions to a religious minority at the expense of national school systems based on the religious teachings of the Bible.

In 18, when Bishop Broughtons agenda was completely revealed, it was brought public that he intended to include the teachings of Anglican evangelists. This was revealed when Governor Gipps attempted to enforce a Bible-based national system and separate Catholic schools. Broughton successfully organised a commotion against this plan in favour of the continuation of state support for Anglican schools. Using this success, Protestants called for government aid for their own educational programs. When an elite committee of the New south Wales Legislative Council proposed the Irish system in1846, Catholics, concerned that the schools could become completely empowered by Protestants, joined Anglicans and other denominations, especially Wesleys, in opposing it. A compromise in 1848 agreed to separate denominational and Irish-type national schools.

Although this view was strongly supported, some influential colonists wanted the financial aid to end in order to eliminate duplication and ensure that public instruction was controlled and financed by each colonial government. Christians and secularists combined with politicians to bring an end to this form of state aid.

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This was a major knock back to the influence of the Protestant churches. Even though secondary schools and universities were to be strong influences on colonial powers, the Roman Catholic Church showed that a strong cultural and religious influence could be provided by their schools.

By the end of the nineteenth century an influential Catholic school system was in place in every colony, continuing the work of religious orders like the Australian-founded Josephites, the Marist and Christian Brothers who came to Australia at the invitation of bishops such as Polding and Moran. Lutherans also had their own school system, but in comparison to the Catholic system, was quite small. Many Protestants argued that such denominational schools were sectarian, but Catholics insisted that it was a matter of conscience to have schools based on religious principles in every part of the curriculum. They claimed that they were denied justice by the Protestant majority because they paid taxes for public schools that they could not in conscience send their children to, while at the same time having to finance their own schools.

This shows the influence Christianity had on education during 1788-100 and how at times caused conflict between Christian denominations who were adamant to have ultimate control in Australian society and to enforce their own Christian teachings.

From this it is seen that Christian authority and influence was decreasing when it came to public morality. Towards the late 1800s public morality was becoming of less importance in comparison to the early 1800s. Despite this, Christianity still had a major influence on morality because Christian leaders had gained high status and power and therefore could exert pressure on people and enforce rules and regulations that all must abide by.

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Smoking

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Have you ever gone to a movie that had huge ads with rave reviews, only to find that it was a waste of time and money? But by then it was too late - youd already spent the bucks on a ticket and popcorn.

Advertising hype can make almost anything look attractive. Thats what tobacco companies and their advertisers have done with smoking. Theyve taken a habit thats a turnoff - smelly, expensive, and unhealthy - and tried to convince you that its glamorous and exciting.

Tobacco companies use advertising to manipulate both teens and adults. They present images that are hard to shake, even when you know the truth. Have you ever seen a cigarette ad where people are wrinkled, middle-aged, and coughing or in the hospital dying of lung cancer? Of course not! In most ads, smokers are shown the way that teens would like to be attractive and hip, sophisticated and elegant, or rebellious and cool.

What they dont tell you in cigarette ads is that they want you to become addicted. Tobacco companies keep close tabs on the number of teens who are smoking. They worry when those numbers decline because they need new smokers to replace the ones who die each day from smoking-related illnesses.

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Many teens start smoking because they have friends or older siblings who smoke. Some teens look at smoking as a way to get through parties, dates, or other difficult social situations. Smoking gives them something to do with their hands and makes them feel older or more sophisticated. Some teens smoke because they feel they look too young and that smoking may make them appear more like an adult.

Some teens - especially girls - think smoking is a way to keep their weight under control. A person might think that if she has cigarettes in her hands, shes a lot less likely to eat. Others believe that a cigarette helps them relax when theyre stressed out because of schoolwork, dating problems, or family pressures.

Teens often start smoking because one or both parents smoke or because another close relative is a smoker. They get the message that smoking is an acceptable habit. Others smoke because it isnt acceptable in their families. These teens may think that smoking shows that they are old enough to make their own decisions.

No matter what age people start smoking - and nearly 0% of adult smokers start while they are still teens - they never intend to get hooked. They may start by taking a cigarette or two from a friend at a party, and then go on to buying an occasional pack. Soon they realize that they cant go without that pack. Theyve gotten used to reaching for a cigarette first thing in the morning, after meals, or during any stressful time. They are addicted, both physically and psychologically.

Its not easy to stop smoking even if you want to. According to many experts, the nicotine in tobacco is more addictive than cocaine and heroin. One survey of high school students who were daily smokers showed that only 5% of them intended to be smoking in 5 years. But after 5 years 75% of them were still smoking. Smokers are also more likely to abuse other substances, such as alcohol and marijuana.

Even if becoming addicted doesnt bother you, the side effects of smoking may. For instance, smokers stink. Literally. The smell of tobacco lingers for a long time on your hair, your clothes, and your breath. Sniff a dirty ashtray to see what a smoker smells like to non-smokers. Smokers dont look good - not at all like the attractive people you see in ads. Their teeth become yellow, and its hard to get the stains removed. Smokers also get many more wrinkles than non-smokers and this is only to name a few effects.

Smoking is expensive. Think of all the CDs, movies, and clothes you could buy with $1,500 each year. Thats about 100 CDs if you are spending $15.00 a CD! Thats whats going up in smoke if youre buying just one pack of cigarettes a day at $4.00 a pack. (And theyre much more expensive than that in many places.) If you live in an area where cigarettes are $6.00 a pack, then smoking a pack a day will cost you about $,00 a year!

Sports are an important part of many teens lives. Smokers find it hard to compete because of the physical effects of smoking rapid heartbeat, decreased circulation, and shortness of breath. Smokers are also more likely to miss a big game because they get more colds and flu.

Its often difficult to think several years ahead The reality is that each time you smoke a cigarette, it is costing you 5 to 0 minutes of your life. It puts you at much greater risk for heart disease and cancer. In fact, one out of every three smokers will die a smoking-related death.

If youve made the decision to avoid smoking, it may help you to have an excuse ready for the times youre feeling the pressure. If a friend offers you a cigarette, you dont have to argue - you can simply say something like I just dont like it, or I want to stay in shape for soccer (or football or basketball or whatever).

Dont feel alone. In spite of what the tobacco companies would like you to believe, only about 8% of high school students smoke. That means about three out of every four dont smoke. Everyone doesnt do it.

You can also have some fun reading between the lines of cigarette advertising. Take a look at how unrealistic the ads are. Are those climbers likely to be climbing a mountain with cigarettes in their backpacks? How long will that woman have beautiful skin and gorgeous teeth if she keeps smoking? The more you think about it, the more ridiculous it is - and the less likely you are to be manipulated by these images.

If youre already a smoker and you want to stop, there is hope. Quitting is tough, but not impossible. Think about all the reasons you want to quit, and try to stay focused on them (such as better performance in sports or saving up for a car). Seek support from your family and your friends.Find a new activity - something that will fill the time (and your hands) during the times that you used to smoke a cigarette. Exercise is a good choice, and it also helps you avoid weight gain.For some people, quitting straight away is best. Others find that a slower approach works for them. There is always an excuse to start smoking, and in fact there will always be an excuse to quit.

Finally, dont get discouraged. When it gets tough, try to remember that being a nonsmoker will give you a whole lot more - more energy, more money in your pocket, and in the long run, more life to live while being healthy.

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What if the Overlords had never come to Earth?

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Somewhere far away from Earth there is a planet, and on this planet there is a species, which have wings, are very tall, and have achieved a high level of civilization. This civilization is very old, and can travel between stars. On the same planet, there is a part of the Overmind, the Overmind is a super power that can produce unlimited forces, and solve any problem without any sort of technology. The Overmind can see the future place where a new part of the super mind will be developed. In this case it was the Earth.

The species that live on Earth are called humans, and they have the ability to be part of the Overmind, but they don't know about their destiny. The Overmind has hired the winged species to create an environment in which human civilization will help humans come to their destiny. The supervisor of Earth will be the Overlord Karellen.

The Overlords have brought peace to Earth, Eliminated disease, poverty, crime and fear. The future of Mankind was changed indefinitely from their coming to Earth. The Overmind sent the Overlords to bring peace to Earth, and gave the Overlords specific instructions of how to take care of the human race.

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The Overlords were sent to make certain conditions on Earth that would free the inner forces of Humans. Karellen and his people aligned the human civilization back to its destined path. If Karellen had not come to Earth, Mankind would still have diseases, still be fighting wars against one another, and there would still be poverty, fear and crime.

Even though the Overlords led to the destruction of Earth, They led Mankind to its final transition to pure brainpower. The children of Earth become pieces of the Overmind like they were supposed to. The Humans were given a chance to be part of something amazing, something wonderful. The Overlords, however where not, and were meant to only serve the Overmind, but not to become part of it. Planet after Planet they guided the people through this stage of change. If Mankind would not have listened to Karellen, it would have died out, at least with the Overlords help, some parts of humanity remained within the Overmind.

Please note that this sample paper on What if the Overlords had never come to Earth? is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on What if the Overlords had never come to Earth?, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on What if the Overlords had never come to Earth? will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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