Juvinile

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Growin Up In the Hood

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Growing Up In the Hood

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Is it a coincidence that highly urbanized areas are full of crime and always statistically higher than small towns and rural areas? A child that is being brought up in a metropolitan area that is full of violent crimes is flooded in a sense and has nothing to do but to breath in some of the negative influences that go on around him. Therefore, I believe that the most influential scene in a child's life is the neighborhood that he grows up in. Parents cannot constantly watch over their children, ask about whom they are hanging out with, constantly check where they are, and find out what they are getting themselves into? (Statistics p48)

When a child is growing up he is frequently asked what he is going to do for money when he gets older. The more this question is asked to them, the more they feel like they have to have money to be happy in life. After many tries of trying to make a stable life at a low paying job, a criminal life maybe more appealing to them at they may start living life under the gun. As stated by William Wilson in When Work Disappears, "Neighborhoods plagued by high levels of joblessness are more likely to experience low levels of social organization, they go hand in hand." In Chicago for instance, in 10 there was only one in three in the twelve ghetto communities that had held a job in a typical workweek of the year. When there are high rates of joblessness bigger problems surface such as violent crime, gang violence, and drug trafficking. (Wilson P56-6)

Juvenile delinquency is a complex social problem that significantly

impacts all members and processes of a social structure. Delinquency refers to a set of behaviors that are not in line with the collective practices and/or ethics of the dominant social group. Essentially, these behaviors deviate from societal norms and more specifically they violate established criminal codes and laws. Juvenile delinquency

incorporates not only general criminal activity but conduct that is only unlawful for youths such as running away from home and skipping school. Current research into this difficult and pressing issue reflects a vast range of theories about, and predictors of delinquency as well as a multitude of strategies to control and reduce overall delinquency. The consensus among practitioners and researchers however maintains that

juvenile delinquency is a dynamic, multifaceted problem with numerous potentially causal factors. Subsequently, investigators and professionals suggest that treatment procedures must focus on not only the immediate issue of the offender's deviant behavior but on every element within the

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Freedom and determinism

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FREEDOM

Determinism

Every event has its cause(s).

Human actions are events.

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Therefore, every human action has its cause(s).

But if human action is caused/determined, how can we be justifiably held responsible for our actions, punished or blamed, rewarded or praised? How could we have done other than what the causes of our actions determined?

Determinism must be distinguished from fatalism and predestination

Fatalism is the view that whatever a person's actions and whatever the circumstances, the end is inevitable. (This view is illustrated by Greek tragedies such as Oedipus whatever you do, you can't avoid your fate.) This is not determinism. Determinism requires that certain actions and circumstances are antecedent conditions of the determined outcome.

Predestination has been the view of many Christian theologians. It states that every action (and every event, for that matter) is known (and even caused) in advance by God. So, like fatalism, predestination does not depend on any antecedent conditions, unless God is considered to be an antecedent condition (i.e., God as the cause of every event).

Fatalism states that whatever happens, the end result is inevitable.

Predestination states that all events are known in advance by God.

Determinism states that if the antecedent conditions (i.e., causes) are met, then an event (i.e., effect) will necessarily follow.

But there is more to determinism than this, since the possibility still remains that if antecedent conditions are met, human choice (or pure chance) can still operate to bring about some event, at least to some extent. In other words, antecedent conditions may limit the possibilities, but do not fully determine them. We must say that determinism is the view that every event has its sufficient cause(s). This view is known as "hard determinism".

Hard Determinism

The laws of physics operate on the premise that every event has its cause(s) (i.e., the principle of universal causation). The determinist claim is that since humans are physical bodies, just as are planets, stars and billiard balls, humans too are subject to the laws of physics, and therefore everything we do is just as determined as everything else in the universe. There is no room for free choices to be made our actions have their causes, even though those causes may be complex and numerous, and what we call free actions are simply the effects of complex, unknown causes.

Determinism collapses without the premise that universal causation is true. But must we adopt this principle? Kant argued that without universal causation, we could not interpret or understand any experience. Even Hume, who denied that causation could be justified through either reason or experience, insisted that our "habit" of imagining causal relations is indispensable and could not be given up by us even if we wanted to. Leibniz rejected the idea of causation, but insisted on his "Principle of Sufficient Reason", which came to the same thing that every event has its sufficient reason. The general consensus has been that the principle on which determinism is founded is inescapable.

Indeterminism

If we see humans as merely physical bodies, then the Newtonian mechanical model of the universe demands that human actions are necessarily determined. But we can think of the determinist's premise as equivalent to saying that if certain antecedent conditions are met, then we can predict that a certain event will occur. With this interpretation of determinism, there may be some room for human freedom, without having to deny the validity of causation.

Many philosophers would defend determinism only in so far as it is predictability on the basis of probability. Thus, to say that every event is determined means that an event is predictable to a certain degree of probability, depending on how much we know about antecedent conditions. But the fact of such predictability is not sufficient to defend determinism, since an event may be predictable on the basis of, for example, statistical probabilities. The predictability may be a prediction of free human choices, and we can predict which choices a person will make because we know how we ourselves would probably choose, given the same circumstances.

Indeterminism is the explicit rejection of determinism. That is, that it is not true that every event has its cause. If we allow that some events are uncaused, human actions may be among those uncaused events.

It was Newtonian physics that gave determinism its strongest claims. The philosopher Pierre Simon La Place boasted that if he were given all the present positions and motions of everything in the universe, then he could predict all future events, provided he had enough time to do the necessary calculations. But modern physics has discovered the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, which states that we cannot know both the location and the momentum of a sub-atomic particle knowing one makes it impossible to know the other. From this principle, Sir Arthur Eddington, Sir Arthur argued that determinism is false on physical grounds. (Note, however, that the Uncertainty Principle is epistemological, not metaphysical. It says something about what we humans can know, not what is.) Every event in the universe is not predictable. Many scientists now agree that the idea of cause does not apply to certain sub-atomic particles. It could be argued that because sub-atomic particles are not determined (which, by the way, not all scientists would concede), and all objects and events involve sub-atomic particles as their constituents, no event is caused or strictly predictable, and therefore not determined. (Of course, many events can be predicted with a large degree of success, but only, according to such arguments, with a high statistical probability, not because of causes.)

There are two serious objections to indeterminism

1. Firstly, even if quantum physics is true, determinism is important as a theory of macroscopic bodies. (Besides, no one has ever concluded that quantum physics is at odds with Newtonian physics. It is rather, a supplement to Newtonian physics.) It may be true that the sub-atomic particles that constitute material objects behave unpredictably, but it does not follow from this that the objects themselves behave unpredictably.

. Secondly, if we suppose that indeterminism is true, it still does not show that humans make free choices. An event that is not determined is not necessarily a free action. It may be that random neurological processes in our brains, arising from pure chance, are actually what is behind the actions that we normally call free choices. Freedom means, at least, that we are free to choose what we shall do, and that decisions we make have some effect. Note that freedom requires that our choices are causes that lead to an effect.

It seems that indeterminism can rob us of our freedom just as much as determinism can!

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Animal testing outline

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Sentence Outline

Proposition Testing on animals is cruel and unnecessary therefore it should be banned in all countries.

1. Scientists often dont benefit from testing on animals.

A. Animals are so different from us and they react differently to drugs.

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B. Results obtained from animal testing is unreliable.

C. Animal research is based on a false premise.

. Animal testing is cruel and inhumane.

A. Animal testing puts animals through a lot of unnecessary suffering.

B. Animal testing kills around 6 million animals every year.

C. Animal cruelty is against the law In most states.

. Animal experiments have caused human suffering.

A. Animal experiments mislead us about the dangers of smoking and lung disese.

B. Halidomide, Opren, FIAU and Eraldin were all drugs that caused serious (often fatal)

side-effects in humans which were not foreseen by animal experiments.

C. The polio vaccine clearly demonstrates the harmfulness of animal research.

4. A. Animals and humans share some characteristics

1. Animals feel pain because our nervous systems are so similar.

. Animals exhibit signs of depression or psychosis similar to humans.

B. Animal research has been vital for medical advances in the past.

1. Animals still cannot be replaced completely by non-animal methods.

. Animal testing has helped provide antibiotics and vaccines.

1. Scientists often dont benefit from testing on animals.

A. Animals are so different from us and they react differently to drugs.

B. Results obtained from animal testing is unreliable.

C. Animal research is based on a false premise.

. Animal testing is cruel and inhumane.

A. Animal testing puts animals through a lot of unnecessary suffering.

B. Animal testing kills around 6 million animals every year.

C. Animal cruelty is against the law In most states.

. Animal experiments have caused human suffering.

A. Animal experiments mislead us about the dangers of smoking and lung disese.

B. Halidomide, Opren, FIAU and Eraldin were all drugs that caused serious (often fatal)

side-effects in humans which were not foreseen by animal experiments.

C. The polio vaccine clearly demonstrates the harmfulness of animal research.

4. A. Animals and humans share some characteristics

1. Animals feel pain because our nervous systems are so similar.

. Animals exhibit signs of depression or psychosis similar to humans.

B. Animal research has been vital for medical advances in the past.

1. Animals still cannot be replaced completely by non-animal methods.

. Animal testing has helped provide antibiotics and vaccines.

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Feudal society

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What is what is feudalism and how was it established?

Lindsey Lischewski

6-6-0

During the ninth and tenth centuries the Carolingian Empire was overwhelmed by the invasions of the Muslims, Magyars, and the Vikings. The Muslims sent armies to attack the southern coasts of Europe and also southern France. The Magyars, people of western Asia established themselves on the plains of Hungary towards the end of the ninth century. They invaded Western Europe, but were overthrown at the Battle of Lechfeld in Germany during the year of 55. After being overthrown they converted to Christianity and created the kingdom of Hungary. The most extensive attack of that time was by the Vikings (Northmen /Norsemen) of Scandinavia. They were Germanic people, and excellent shipbuilders and sailors. In fact they had the best ships of that period that carried about 50 men. With this advantage the Vikings were capable of sailing up the European rivers and then attack at a distance. During the ninth century they effortlessly defeated the small local armies, scoured the villages/towns, and destroyed the churches. By the year of 850 Viking groups of Norway had settled in Ireland. Beginning in the year of 11 France gained a new section known to us today as Normandy. This was the result of the western Frankish land ruler making the choice to supply certain Vikings land at the mouth of the Seine River.

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After all of the invasions a new political order was established in attempt by the royal governments to defend their citizens. The new order was called feudalism, this creating a Feudal Society.

What is feudalism anyway? If you were to look this up in a book or on the Internet you might be given a definition similar to this, "A military system based on the idea of vassalage. Vassals served their lord in a military capacity so in return, they would receive care for their needs." For many this definition can be a little confusing…. So for those of us who aren't quite literate enough to understand this definition, let's put it into plain and simple English. Basically, feudalism is an agreement between a vassal and his lord. A vassal can be described as a warrior. They dressed in armor made of metal links or plates, and armed with swords. Their lord was in other words the warrior's leader or chief. This agreement between the two, is a system of the warriors swearing an oath of loyalty to their leaders and promising to provide protection for them performing military services. For example, the warriors were to fight in the army for their leaders. Making financial payments to the lord such as the knighting of the lord's oldest son, the marriage of his oldest daughter, and the even paying the ransom of the lord if he was ever kidnapped was just another obligation of a vassal. They were also required to attend when asked, their leader's court to give them advice, and may even be requested to sit in the judgment of a legal case. In return for the warrior's services, the leaders would provide them with the care that they needed. To ensure that everyone kept their word and followed the agreement they had made, an unwritten contract called the feudal contract was developed.

Subinfeudation however, is what complicated it all. It presented a complication regarding the feudal contract. The problem was when vassals of a king would have a vassal themselves. A vassal that may had only been a knight that had land that was incapable of providing him with the income needed for the equipment he would use when performing the expected military services. Because of this, the lord-vassal relationship joined the greater and lesser landowners together. These relationships of the lords and vassals were always honorable and never servant like.

Feudalism brought the people together so nicely that the idea spread to England, Germany, central Europe, and Italy. This system allowed everyone to have a chance at life and also kept the society safer. The vassals were protecting the lords, and the lords were protecting the vassals. The understanding between the two landowners worked out so well, that some of the other surrounding countries realized that this is what they needed to do and wanted to have a Feudal Society as well. Although feudalism was originally the product of the Carolingian world, the system was a widely spread idea because of all it's positive effects on a society.

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In An Attempt to Eat

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"Ma? Can I go watch TV now?" I would ask at the dinner table.

"Only after two more mouthfuls," my mom would sternly answer.

I would obey, gulping down the two mouthfuls, and look at her with watery eyes, pleadingly hoping she would let me go. She would sigh with frustration and say, "Fine, you may be excused."

That was when I was about two or three years old. I was this skinny, little kid who was always whining at breakfast, lunch, or dinner. My most miserable time was mealtime. I never enjoyed eating as a child, except when it was chocolate candy or when I was almost dying of hunger. Being the first-born child, I got to be my parents' guinea pig. My mom got this idea from a book that kids should be fed only when they're hungry. This way they won't take in more calories than necessary. It's supposed to be an effective way of preventing weight gain. So my mom only fed me whenever I was hungry, which was not very often. She even tried grinding the food to make it easier to swallow, any way by which I could take in food as it took me forever to finish even a small meal. As a result, I became this undernourished child who was in and out of the doctor's clinics in the vain hope of finding relief. None worked.

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In desperation, my mom devised a new tactic. I couldn't leave the dinner table until I finished the food on my plate. That didn't work either as the maid with eagle eyes saw through the rice in which I had buried the meat and vegetables. And no eating while watching television was the rule of the house.

Once my mom thought she had a bright idea. She bought cornflakes, a new thing to me then, hamburgers, doughnuts, chocolate chip cookies, spaghetti and pizza, anything except the home cooked meals. The Filipino cuisine my grandmother cooked for the family was not to my taste. My appetite improved a little but I was still terribly underweight.

On one of my regular visits to the doctor's office, she said, "She looks so frail. Try giving her this every morning," while she scribbled some long, undecipherable name on a piece of paper. When my mom read the brochure, she was aghast. It was a drug for anorexia nervosa. I heard her say to my grandmother, "My daughter's not anorexic!"

"She looks anorexic, " my grandmother replied. "No wonder the doctor is desperate, too!"

For a while the new prescription helped. My face got a little rounder and the muscles in my arms and legs also got a little rounder. There were promising signs but my mom thought I couldn't live on medicines all my life, that whatever it was, it was a temporary solution to the problem. I had to come out of it myself. Encouraging me to eat was not an option because that wasn't what I needed. I had to find pleasure in eating, like some kids she knew. Eating was an adventure, not an obligation. As my grandmother would say I had to live to eat, not eat to live.

Since my mom was a professor in physical education, she thought maybe I should engage in a physical activity. So she got me into sports. This was not just to increase my food intake, but also to help me gain confidence in myself, as I was painfully shy, or so they said.

When I turned four, she enrolled me in an artistic gymnastics class. I loved it. I got to know kids my age. I also got special attention from the coach. And not for long I was consuming more food than before, since my stomach was growling by the time my training was over. Even before break time, I was hungry.

"Ma, I want some fish balls and kikiam."

Was she happy! Now, I was asking for food.

I also took up ballet because my mom was once a dancer. She felt that I should learn how to dance just like her. So I trained in ballet and carried on with gymnastics. In fifth grade, I shifted from artistic to rhythmic gymnastics because I was getting taller and I had long arms and legs, the perfect physique for the sport, in contrast to artistic gymnastics, which requires a petite build. I also learned how to swim and eventually started training for it after I quit rhythmic gymnastics in sixth grade. Along with my best friend, Mei-li, I engaged in aikido to learn self-defense the summer before seventh grade. I also tried jazz during the same summer as my aikido classes and I still continued ballet lessons. I took up two more sports, basketball and badminton. But team sports were never really my thing. I gave up ballet and everything else three years ago so that I could pay more attention to my studies, as my high school required a grade point average. But I still participated in school plays and musicals where I danced. Then more than a year ago, before my high school senior year started, I tried a new hobby, sport climbing, which is my main interest up until now.

My background in physical activities worked to my advantage. I'm more flexible and I have developed my strength. My friends sometimes tease me for being as strong as a guy, but I don't mind. I'm sort of proud because people stop to think twice if I'm a sissy or not. And I love it when I prove to one and all that I can match up to guys in physical and mental strength. The sports that I've taken up not just improved my body but also my mind. I've learned to think critically, and I'm more disciplined in mind and body.

In addition, I've also come out of my shell. I've developed my social skills, making me more active in school. I am more confident, a result from joining all those competitions and winning every now and then. I know that I am capable of doing lots of things. I have never experienced not having anything to do after class, because I am always up to something, like working out three times a week at the gym or just hanging out with a large group of friends. I now feel the need to get out and do something that would be fulfilling. I am no couch potato like other kids my age today, who stare into those black boxes that stream out images to watch all day long, and sometimes even into the night.

Of course, I now eat to help my body gain the energy that I need for my sports activities. Mealtime has become my favorite part of the day. I see the importance of food in my everyday activities, because if I want to continue doing what I love, I have to have the energy for it. I have also noticed that while most of my classmates get sick at the slightest change of weather, I'm almost never affected.

My work in the physical realm has ceased to become the quest for a better appetite. It has turned into a passion to do all sorts of things and eat and not get overweight.

And my mom is the happiest mother on earth. The "Carnation babies" in ballet class have grown to become chubby teenagers with weight problems. The guys don't take a second look and that is the biggest problem of all.

Me? I have remained skinny, but strong, standing tall with what they say is a model's figure. The guys look and look again, and I smile, hold my head high for while I have no passion for guys yet, I now have a passion for food.

"MAAA!!! Is there cake left in the ref?"

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African Culture

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The African Diaspora in the New World The study of cultures in the African Diaspora is relatively young. Slavery and the trans-Atlantic slave trade brought numerous Africans, under forced and brutal conditions, to the New World. Of particular interest to many recent historians and Africanists is the extent to which Africans were able to transfer, retain, modify or transform their cultures under the conditions of their new environments. Three main schools of thought have emerged in scholarly discussion and research on this topic. Some argue that there are no significant connections between Africans and African American communities in the Americas. Others argue that Africans retained significant aspects of their cultures. Similar to this argument, some have argued that Africans, responding to their new environments, retained and transformed African cultures into new African-American ethnic units. Detailed research done on slave communities in Surinam, South Carolina and Louisiana allow us to look deeper into the stated arguments. Having recently addressed the same issues using Colonial South Carolina as a case study, I will focus largely on some of the arguments and conclusions drawn from this study. The evidence from South Carolina, Louisiana and Surinam supports the second and third arguments much more than the first. The third argument, that of cultural transformation, is the argument I find to be most valid. John Thorntons analysis of this issue is extremely helpful. He addresses the no connections arguments in chapters 6, 7 and 8. He outlines the claims made by scholars Franklin Frazier, Stanley Elkins, Sidney Mintz and Richard Price. Frazier and Mintz believe that the extreme trauma and disruption experienced by Africans during the process of enslavement and the middle passage minimized the possibility that they maintained aspects of their cultures in the new world. They argue that this process had the effect of traumatizing and marginalizing them, so that they would became cultural receptacles rather than donors (15). Mintz and Price have argued the slave trade had the effect of permanently breaking numerous social bonds that had tied Africans together… (15). Another element of the no connections argument claims that Africans did not receive enough associational time with each other or with those of similar ethnic backgrounds to ensure survival of cultural practices. Drawing largely upon the study of Anthropology, Thornton attempts to outline conditions for cultural survival and transformation. He contends these arguments stating that opportunities existed for viable communities to be formed, that there were prospects for passing on changing cultural heritage to a new generation through training of offspring and that there existed opportunities for Africans to associate with themselves (15). Thornton finds much more evidence for cultural transformation than cultural transplantation. He notes the tendency of researchers to focus on specific Africanisms rather than the cultural totality and stresses the fact that cultures change through constant interaction with other cultures… (0, 07). I agree with Thorntons analysis. As stated in a passage from our paper It would be naïve to think that after being enslaved and transported across the sea to a foreign continent African slaves were able to physically transplant their cultures in this new environment. It would be equally naïve to believe no elements of African culture made their way to this region… Africans were interacting with Europeans and other Africans of different ethnic groups, adapting to the realities of their new environments and transforming elements of both old and new into their own African-American culture. (Bright & Broderick 10). Evidence exists that shows Africans were allowed enough associational time to form viable communities, that they maintained strong family structures and that they exercised a large degree of control in the raising their own children. An example for the argument of significant retention of Africanisms could be that of the Maroon communities in Surinam. In the film I Shall Molder Before I am Taken, we saw examples of African descendants separated from European masters, living largely isolated in the Jungle in a similar manner to that of their ancestors. The community was strikingly similar to the Asante communities described in the film Atumpan . There was much ceremonial detail in addressing the chief or headman of the village. Just as with the Asante, citizens and visitors had to address the headman through an interpreter. Leadership was also determined through matrilineal lines as in Akan societies of Ghana. In felling a tree, the Saramaka would explain to the spirits how the tree was necessary for their survival and would be used wisely. They concluded by thanking the spirits and the forest for the tree and leaving an offering for its taking. The Saramaka also used mediums such as song, dance and stories to recreate and teach important e lements of their history and culture. All of these practices can be almost directly traced to their previous African societies. Still, the Saramaka Maroons lend sufficient proof to the argument of cultural transformation. Even after hundreds of years of isolation in the jungle, the Saramaka showed significant examples of cultural adaptation and borrowing. As witnessed in the Price Literature and Film, everything from botanical medicines to basketry and fishing techniques was learned from the Native Americans (Jason & Kirschensteiner ). Inquiring about the plants used by the medicine man to treat tendinitus, Price found that much of the treatment of disease and knowledge of medical plants was learned through Indians. The Maroon Creole language, consisting of a mixture of English, Portuguese, Dutch and African languages, is also symbolic of the cultural transformation that had taken place. Colonial Louisiana also provided opportunities for viable African maroon communities. The geographic environment of Louisiana with its bayous, thick swamps and intricate river system, contributed to the ability of Africans to evade capture and move about with relative freedom. Gwendolyn Hall depicts how Africans created a network of secret communities in the cypress swamps surrounding plantations. These Maroons would hide out for weeks, months and even years on or behind their masters estates without being detected or apprehended (Hall 0). Hall describes the creolization of Africans and Europeans in Colonial Louisiana Conditions prevailing…molded a Creole or Afro-American slave culture through the process of blending and adaptation of slave materials brought by the slaves… (15). Lower mortality rates among slaves, levels of freedom gained through escape and survival in the swamps and a relatively small white population led Hall to characterize Louisiana as creating the most Africanized slave cultur e in the Untied States (161). Creole culture came out of a consolidation of African, European and Native American cultures. The dominance of African linguistic and cultural patterns made this culture predominately an Afro-Creole culture. Providing compelling evidence for the argument of transformations of African culture is the study of slave life in Colonial South Carolina. Africans contributed tremendously to the successful settlement of the Colony and adapted and retained elements of their roots into unique African American communities. These communities included unique family and religious structures. Before the Stono Rebellion of 17, slaves were allowed a considerable amount of freedom to associate among themselves. They were also encouraged to have families and allowed to exercise a large degree of autonomy in raising their children. As noted by Peter Wood, slave families; similar to African families, would serve an important function in passing down cultural heritage to the young. In accordance with African tradition, South Carolina slaves relied on folk tales as the primary vehicle for education of young. Slaves modified these tales to fit their situation and environment in South Carolina. The traditional trickster, recurrent in We st African folk tales, was replaced by the rabbit. In religious worship Africans adapted old traditions to their new situation. Many slaves in Colonial South Carolina became Christians. This was not done without adding elements of their previous beliefs systems. Africans in Colonial South Carolina worshipped their new Christian god with the kind of expressive behavior their African heritage taught them was appropriate for an important deity (Bright & Broderick 11). Slaves also used African forms such as dances, chants, trances and spirit possession in their practice of Christianity. The call and response pattern characteristic of West African music was adapted to this new religion. Sundays were designated as free days for South Carolina slaves and this day was often devoted to family, religious and community activities. In this process of transformation there was also an element of rebellion. After having gained elements of community and family ethnic identity and freedom, slaves in Colonial South Carolina would not become totally accepting of their condition and would resist attempts to limit those freedoms they did have. An element of African culture that was modified for the purpose of rebellion was the use of poison. In the tradition of the West African Obeah-man, powers could be used to cure or to punish enemies. In this respect, poison could be used in a negative capacity. The use of poison as a form of rebellion is visible in both the examples from Colonial South Carolina and Jamaica. Cases of death by poison in Colonial South Carolina leading up to the Stono Rebellion led to its inclusion in the Negro Act of 1740. The Act made poisoning a felony punishable by death. In conclusion, both significant African retentions and transformations took place in the early European settlement of the Americas. More recently, there has been a tendency to overemphasize or even romanticize the Africanisms. While acknowledging Africanisms did make their way into the Americas, I find the evidence from accounts of early slave cultures and the Anthropological background provided by Thornton on cultural transformation and change persuasive in suggesting the formation of Afro- American rather than Afro-centric communities. This approach to the slavery and the slave era is relatively young and will have to be developed. A conclusion that is clear after studying works of Peter Wood, Gwendolyn Hall and Richard Price, is that the early arguments suggesting no connection of African heritage to the Americas are entirely invalid. Response to Question The settlement and establishment of the Freetown peninsula as a colony for freed slaves would come to represent one of the most unique settings for coalescence of African and European cultures. The majority of Freetown Africans had gone through the unusual experience of being enslaved in their home countries, sold to be sent abroad and then; by chance and circumstance, they were captured by the British manawars and unloaded in what was to become a bold experiment in Africas colonial history. The Africans described in Phillip Curtins book are an example of the diversity in background of those settled in Freetown. Ali Eisami, a Muslim, was captured in the Fulbe uprisings in Bornu in 1808 and made his way to Freetown after witnessing much of the fall of the Oyo empire. Samuel Ajayi Crowther was captured in Yoruba land, shipped for Brazil, and sent to Freetown after the slave vessel was intercepted. He would later become a well known Anglican bishop. Joseph Wright would end up in Freetown as a result of Egba cri sis and defeat in the 180s. He would later become a prominent missionary for the Wesley-Methodist Missionary Society. This African diversity, coupled with European administration of the company and eventual colony, would prove to be a source of conflict in the Freetown Peninsula. The principal competition of cultures would come over the practice of religion. The Peterson chapter and the group project by Ms. Brewer, Mr. Keenan and Ms. Doerr outline this conflict well. The main source of conflict and competition was between the British Church and Wesley and Methodist Africans, and between Muslims and both of the former groups. Peterson comments on early religion in Sierra Leone There persisted within the church of Sierra Leone a strong element of prior, non-Christian belief which tended to fuse with the religion of the European. In addition, Islam was to be found flourishing in the villages and in Freetown (0). The British movement to free slaves also had a paternalistic element to the Briton…the conversion of the heathen was as much a part of the settlements collective purpose as was the wish to civilize the so-called barbarian (0). Many of the Africans on the Freetown peninsula did not embrace Christianity and most of those that did committed to Wesley or Methodist faiths inherited by the Nova-Scotians. The British authority did not welcome any of these religious practices; instead, they sought to have a church monopoly of Africans practicing the proper faith. In 18, angry with the second class status given to them within the church structure, Nova-Scotian settlers broke with the British church and formed their own dependent church called the West African Methodist Society (). The Society, led by Anthony Oconnor, quickly grew to include ,000 members and forty-three preachers. The new church would eventually gain endorsement form the British Colonial Government. Of particular concern to many British Christians and colonial administrators was the integration of traditional African beliefs and ceremonies with Christianity and the practice of Islam in Freetown and surrounding villages. There are a number of documents of British missionaries voicing their concern over the use of such things as wake ceremonies, belief and use of gri-gri charms and the offering of libations to deceased by African Christians. One Revd. J.F. Schon even went so far as to attempt to halt a wake ceremony only to be rebuffed with the response, We born in another country, this fashion we learned from our fathers. What they did we do (7). The use of wakes by African Christians prompted the attempt to outlaw them by creating the punishment of expulsion from the Wesley church by any member found participating or attending a wake. Despite the attempts of the British, African forms of Christianity persisted. Both the British and African Christians clashed with Muslims. Muslims in Freetown were often treated as second class citizens and generally lived in separate sections of town. The Colonial Government attempted to suppress Muslims in the 10s. The Governor, Richard Doherty, expressed his dislike for Muslims and a desire for a policy of discrimination for recaptives (40). He claimed he was offended by their polygamy and wanted to break up their communities and have them pushed beyond the colony borders (Brewer, Keenan & Doerr 10). In the late 180s the Foulah town Mosque was destroyed by fire. This discrimination is one of the reasons Muslims tended to withdraw themselves to separate areas in Freetown or to the surrounding villages. Missionaries also expressed their disliking for Muslims and some of this transferred to African Christians. This enmity would change though and association between African Christian and Muslims would lead to the permanent establishment of a unified, diverse Creole culture with the formation of the Creole association. Begun in 188, the movement was a call to unify against increased concern for conflict with Africans of the interior. The association was made up of both Christians and Muslims and had traces of African nationalism. At one meeting Muslim leader Mohammed Sanunsi announced that both Mohammedans and Christians of this country are of one race… (48). At another meeting a speaker made a call for the redemption of Africa and called for all to unite for the Salvation of Africa… (Peterson 48). From this point on Muslim and Christians would be integrated into a distinct Creole society. This society exists still today. In relation to African-American communities, the emergence of Creole culture was similar in that it too was formed out of interaction among various African cultures with themselves and Europeans. Liberated Africans on the peninsula, as in the Americas, found themselves living with both members of their own African ethnicity and others of different origin. Similar to African American communities, Creole culture in Freetown created its own distinct language, and religious structures reflecting both African tradition and European influence. They also showed strong community ties as evidenced in the prevalence and practice of benefit and welfare societies. Sharp differences in the emergence of these communities would come inevitably from structure. Excluding British Colonial paternalism, Liberated Africans of Freetown were free of the control, restrictions and brutality of slavery. In the development of mixed cultures the amount of freedom for voluntary association becomes important. Liberated Freetown Africans had more opportunity for cultural interaction and associations and the development of their communities was often encouraged. They were safe to develop their communities and cultures with a great deal of freedom and personal control as opposed to African American communities that were often forced to develop in secrecy and seclusion. They were also in an African environment. The most significant difference in the development of these communities was the that of education. Education of Africans, largely along European lines, was encouraged and supported in Freetown. Fourah bay was one of the first Universities established in West Africa and by the end of the 180s it was already producing teachers such as Samuel Crowther. The British Government established schools in villages with the purpose to educate re-captives… (Brewer, Keenan & Doerr 4). This stands in contrast with the Americas were education of slaves was discouraged and outlawed. All of these factors gave Liberated Africans on the Freetown peninsula much more freedom in developing their Creole communities. Compared with African American communities, this development took place with more independence and structure and within an African environment.

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Can Money Buy Happiness?

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Can Money Buy Happiness?

In October of 00, MTV aired the first ever episode of a show called Rich Girls which is a reality series that follows two young, wealthy girls throughout their daily life. The first time I saw the advertisement for this show I have to admit, I was pretty appalled. Who would ever want to watch a show about two rich, stuck up girls going on thousand dollar shopping sprees while they prance around in their chauffeured limo? Well, I guess I was one of those people. I didn't want to watch it at first, but I was almost drawn into it.

As I sat in my small, cubicle of a dorm room eating my Cup-Of-Soup noodles I watched in silence as the show winded down minute by minute. After it was over, I wasn't sure what made me more furious when they talked about how they treat the garbage man like the salesperson from Prada, their persistent complaining and nagging or the fact that they were just so shallow and fake. Ally Hilfiger and Jaime Gleicher were born into rich families, there's nothing you can do about that, but I am not too keen on how people act with money that they didn't earn. If they wanted to do a show on the life of Jennifer Lopez and how she likes to spend her millions, that would be understandable because we all know she worked hard to get where she is. But when I see those ungrateful, lazy, never-worked-a-day-in-their-life, spoiled brats talk about such useless things, it's hard to comprehend why they get such an easy life, and the rest of us don't.

After watching the past couple episodes, I have come to a conclusion. Rich Girls honestly makes me feel better about myself. It's hard to sit there and watch them live their life, but once you really depict what's going on, you can see that they don't have it as well off as you might think. Ally Hilfiger actually had to thank her dad for coming to her graduation (it's a sad thing when you have to thank your own father for attending such an important occasion), Jaime and Ally have only one friend that hangs out with them and their conversations are so shallow and materialistic that I would rather have an intellectual discussion with Jessica Simpson. I feel bad that they haven't had a job and that they don't know what it is like to work for hard-earned money. Those are the type of things that make us better people. The struggles and the strife's that we go through are the things that make us stronger; Ally and Jaime will never go through those things. So, instead of me constantly ridiculing the show, I want to thank the girls for making me appreciate what I have and being thankful that my life isn't so easy.

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