History of Communication

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Gino Canella

History of Communication

Dr. Calvin Troup

April 8, 00

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1. Reading, Writing, & Thinking

I can significantly see a progression in my writing and reading skills from my first journal to my last. By reading the assigned selections, I feel like I can evaluate readings better and come up with my own conclusions. Because the journal questions were more opinion-based, this allowed me to read the selections, try to analyze them, and then come to a sound conclusion based on supporting evidence.

The Comm. Ancients section of the course was a little difficult for me because philosophy has never been a strong point of mine. Although I was uninterested in the material and found it difficult to grasp, I still think it is a necessary entity of the course. It allows you to progress through history and apply communication to ithence, the title of the course. After reading Cicero, Gorgias, Aristotle, and Plato, I feel like I can understand the concept of rhetoric better and can more importantly, read and write about it easier.

. Media

The discussions and focus on media throughout the course was very interesting to me. Because we live in a media-rich society, it is important to discuss this powerful force and try to analyze it the best we could. I only missed one or two classes I think mostly because class time was used effectively. The lectures, audio and visual clips, and presentations were very informative. I am glad the course is not centered on memorization because I don't have to sit and write the power point slides down word-for-word in my notebook. I can listen to what the professor has to say and apply it to my field of interest or the present day.

I think my appreciation for TV news has decreased since the start of the course. Almost every journalism and communication course I have had at Duquesne has stressed the importance of newspapers and their ability to cover the whole story and offer a wide variety of opinions, whereas television can only show you a minute and a half package of something. I'm beginning to see why this is the case among college professors, but I still keep a sense of awareness for TV news because I know it can dominate public opinion, and it is the way most Americans still get their news.

. Skills

I think my skills have most definitely increased since the beginning of the course. All the entities of communication (reading, writing, speaking, reasoning) are tied in a direct relationship so when one increases, the rest tend to follow. Because I can read and understand what I'm reading more effectively, I can express my feelings in writing better and I can speak with more confidence.

I have learned that it is often how you say things, not what you say. I can take this into account because to speak with confidence and "eloquence" allows others to look at you as if you really knew what you were talking about. I think you still need to have some substance behind what you say, but the better speaker will always have the upper hand because he knows what his audience wants to hear and can tell it to them easier.

4. Self-Analysis

One thing I would change about the way I handled the course would be to get things done earlier. The journals were often a burden on Sunday afternoon because I would rush to get what I had all week to get done in one day. If you take one or two readings a day then it can make things a lot easier on yourself. This would also have given me better understandings of the readings.

I would also have not put the World War II project off for as long as I did. I wasn't sure the significance of the assignment of how it applied to communications, but sometimes you have to do what is assigned even if you don't like it. After I took the time to do a little research and write a paper I was glad I did because I know a lot more about the war than most of my friends.

It is also important to have good communication with your writing partner. My partner and I are friends and speak in class but we don't take advantage of the opportunity to help each other with our work. Getting advice from a classmate about your WWII project, your journals, or The Screwtape letters, can help out a lot. It is always better to have two opinions than one.

5. Suggestions for Improvement

There aren't any noticeable changes that I can see to help the course significantly. One thing I did enjoy was the class discussions because it allowed for a wide range of people to get their opinion heard. But once they were heard many of them did not face any opposition. Many things we talked about in class were opinion-based so maybe the addition of a small debate fit into the course schedule would be interesting. This would allow writing partners to get into groups and put their opinion to the test against another. It would also force people to apply facts, substance and communication skills to their debate. And once the debate is over, you can see who won by taking a class poll and analyzing what the winning group did. Did they speak eloquently to sway the judges or did they have sound evidence and proof to their opinion?

I enjoyed watching Network because I thought it was a film that really tied in a lot of themes from class. I'm not sure if there are any other films that do the same thing, but maybe adding another one to a journal somewhere or doing one as an extra credit could be interesting. It is always educational and entertaining for a student to get to watch a film and learn something at the same time.

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The role of science in today's world.

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Despite the fact that science played a major role in the last century to help transform our society to a more livable and enjoyable world, few young people showed any kind of interest in pursuing any scientific or technical careers and that even the general public showed an even lower level of involvement in scientific research and studies.

One of the many facts that much of the technology that surrounds us today owes its very existence to the development of quantum mechanics discovered in the early decades of the 100s and this very discovery led to the birth of the electronic industry. Drugs like penicillin was a direct product of this discovery, which later flourished soon after World War II.

From reading the article, I understood the effect and importance that science has on my day to day living and I have realized that we are all taking the importance of science granted as a major contributor to the business world.

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Despite the fact that science played a major role in the last century to help transform our society to a more livable and enjoyable world, few young people showed any kind of interest in pursuing any scientific or technical careers and that even the general public showed an even lower level of involvement in scientific research and studies.

One of the many facts that much of the technology that surrounds us today owes its very existence to the development of quantum mechanics discovered in the early decades of the 100s and this very discovery led to the birth of the electronic industry. Drugs like penicillin was a direct product of this discovery, which later flourished soon after World War II.

From reading the article, I understood the effect and importance that science has on my day to day living and I have realized that we are all taking the importance of science granted as a major contributor to the business world.

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Contras, What Were They, and How Did They Affect Nicaragua?

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The contras were an American backed rebel association brought in to overthrow the Nicaraguan administration customary of the Sandinistas. Contra strategies incorporated the unsystematic homicide of defenseless villagers in isolated areas. The burning of educational institutions, health centers and residences. They lacked any popular support in their country, but were very well equipped and frequently capable to crush the poorly prepared peoples armed forces of Nicaragua. They were utilized to frighten the local inhabitants into voting for an American supported aspirant in elections. The warning being that if the erroneous individual was voted for, the Contra measures would continue. The warning worked.

Affairs with the United States weakened little by little, particularly subsequent to Ronald Reagan becoming president in 181. His government was strongly anti-Communist and was certain that the Sandinistas were behind rebel armed forces in other Central American countries and were directly connected with Cuba and the USSR. Reagan cut all aid to Nicaragua, forced an monetary embargo, and began supplying funds, weapons, and instruction for an equipped resistance guerrilla force recognized as the contras. These contra army, based in nearby countries, incorporated previous members of Somoza's National Guard as well as additional Nicaraguans discontented with the new administration. Nicaragua, facing contra assaults, began getting military aid from Cuba along with the Soviet Union. The administration suppressed the media, repeatedly imprisoned opposition politicians, and enlarged efforts to enforce a socialist replica on the financial system. Large elements of a private industry division continued, nonetheless, opposition politics were never prohibited.

Elections were held in 184, however the majority opposition parties declined to take part. The Sandinista aspirant, Daniel Ortega Saavedra, won an effortless triumph, furthermore the Sandinistas gained an enormous majority in the new National Assembly. The United States plus a great deal of the opposition resorted to militia to attempt to remove the Sandinistas. Fatalities from the contra war increased, and the danger of war among Nicaragua and Honduras became greater than before. Honduran officials permitted the contras to assault Nicaragua from bases in their countryside, develop their own army, and allowed the United States to carry out armed training and construct airstrips from which to aid the contras. Members of the U.S. Congress who opposed the contra guidelines tried to limit financial support, although they had only partial achievements until 186, once the scandal identified as the Iran-Contra matter exposed that Reagan's government officials had violated U.S. law to obtain support of the contras.

Other countries in the hemisphere attempted to arbitrate the Central American catastrophe. The Contadora grouping of Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, and Panama began its labors in 18 but failed and had a tiny accomplishment. In 187 Costa Rica's leader, Oscar Arias Sánchez, began an attempt to have Central America's presidents solve their individual problems. In 188, the Sandinistas decided to start discussions in the company of the contras, however combating persistented for quite a few months. Pressures for a negotiated resolution were building. Nicaragua's financial system was devastated by the effects of the fighting and the U.S. prohibition, low prices for exports, and a sequence of natural disasters. Many of the Sandinista administrations monetary policies, which implicated state management of imports and exports, emphasis on agricultural cooperatives, and limitations on private industry, proved ineffective. At its most terrible point, in 188, Nicaragua had the world's highest yearly inflation rate, with estimates ranging from ,000 percent to 6,000 percent. Soviet union aid also decreased in the late 180s, as the Soviet financial system worsened and Communist regimes were defeated in Eastern Europe. At the same time, U.S. labors to come across a negotiated answer in Central America enlarged with the 18 appointment of President George Bush to succeed Reagan.

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Near the beginning of 18, Central American leaders approved a plan for disarming the contras, sending out a United Nations peacekeeping operation, and holding internationally supervised appointment in Nicaragua in early 10. Convinced of triumph, the Sandinistas calmed prohibitions on political opponents and permitted a somewhat liberated campaign. Fourteen opposition parties created the National Opposition Union with Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, as their presidential aspirant. Campaigning on a pledge to stop armed recruitment and encourage national reconciliation, Chamorro won a striking triumph with 55 percent of the vote, defeating current president Ortega, the Sandinista aspirant, who acknowledged only 41 percent.

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Legalization of marijuana

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Should Marijuana be legal in the United States?

Marijuana is by far the most commonly used illegal drug in the United States and in most other countries as well. More than seventy million Americans have tried marijuana, and more than twenty million have smoked it in the last year, but does marijuana really affect people and their thinking process, and should pot be legal in the United States. I believe that marijuana should be legal because people should live life how they want, even though it could lead to harm.

Marijuana hit the united states big in the 60's and 70's. Through this time period many people thought this drug was harmless. Today we know that pot is much more dangerous than previously believed. There are many slang terms used for marijuana, some are pot, weed, cannabis, Mary Jane, hash, dope, bud, green, smoke, to name a few.

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There are many pros and cons to the use of marijuana. Many people use this drug for medical use, and others use it for entertainment. In the United States, using marijuana for medical purposes is illegal. Since the 1970's thirty-five state legislatures have passed laws supporting marijuana's use as a medicine. People suffering from nausea and vomiting, who are unable to swallow and hold down a pill, smoking marijuana is often the only reliable way to deliver THC. Another pro to the use of marijuana is diminishing glaucoma; it also can be affective in stimulating appetite in AIDS patients. There is also evidence that smoked marijuana and THC reduce muscle spasms from spinal cord injuries and multiple sclerosis. Physicians have reported that smoked marijuana provides relief from migraine headaches, depression, seizures, insomnia, and chronic pain. I think marijuana should be legal because if people sold pot in their stores, pot smokers would buy it, and it would boost the economy. I also think some drug crimes and innocent killings would go down an enormous amount.

There are many cons to the use of this drug. Marijuana produces immediate, temporary changes in thoughts, perceptions, and information processing, even though there is no convincing scientific evidence that pot causes psychological damage or mental illness in either teenagers or adults. Many Americans believe that marijuana plays a role in violent acts while on this drug. Almost all human and animal studies show that pot decreases rather than increases aggression. There is a myth that pot interferes with male and female sex hormones, but in fact there is no evidence that marijuana causes infertility in men or women. Another con of pot is it could possibly be a gateway drug. Even if marijuana itself causes minimal harm, it is a dangerous substance because it leads to the use of harder drugs. One of the biggest cons of legalizing "Mary Jane" would be that a large amount of Americans would be smoking pot all the time, and they would end up going to work stoned, and not think straight while on the job.

Marijuana is rapidly increasing in popularity throughout the world. Many people find pot to be a gateway drug, like a stepping stone toward other harmful drugs. There are many reasons why young kids get into this drug at an early age, one reason I think this is is because of the types of music kids listen to. If your children listen to any CD with a parental advisory sticker, most likely that record will take about the use of marijuana and any other drugs that artists do. Marijuana is the most popular illegal drug in the United States today. Therefore, people who have used less popular drugs, such as heroin, cocaine, and LSD, are likely to have also used marijuana. Most marijuana users never use any other illegal drug. For the large majority of people, marijuana is a terminus rather than a gateway drug. In a test of marijuana users ever trying cocaine, it shows that from 1975 to 1996 the highest it ever got was Twenty Five percent, and before that it was down ten to Fifteen percent. For every 100 people who have tried marijuana, twenty-eight have tried cocaine, only twelve have used cocaine twelve or more times, five have used cocaine more than one hundred times. One currently uses cocaine once a week or more.

I think people that get caught with marijuana should not be punished as hard as they do. Marijuana arrest in the United States has doubled between 1991 and 1995. In 1995, more than one-half-million people were arrested for pot offenses. Eighty –six percent of them were arrested for marijuana possession. Tens of thousands of people are now in prison for marijuana offenses. An even greater number are punished with probation, fines, and civil sanctions, including having their property seized, their driver's licenses revoked, and their employment terminated. Under federal law, possessing a single joint (or less) of marijuana is punishable by a fine from $1,000 to $10,000 and up to a year in prison .For people on probation or parole for any criminal offense, a marijuana arrest can result in their immediate incarceration. For people who live in public housing, the arrest of any family member for a drug offense can cause eviction of the entire family. Under state and federal law, mere investigation for a marijuana offense can result in the forfeiture of property, including cash, cars, boats, land, and houses. Despite these civil and criminal acts, pot continues to be readily available and widely used. In 1970, there were 188,903 total arrests. In 1995, there were 588,963 total arrests in the United States. I think that all those charges for one marijuana offense are harsh, even though pot is an illegal drug. An average of 3,677 marijuana offenders has been put in federal prison each year since 1990. This compares to an average of about 1,900 per year in the 80's and about 1,200 per year in the 1970's.

The average of marijuana seized by the police in 1980 was 1.96 percent and there were one hundred fifty-three seizures, compared to the 3.33 percent in 1993 and 3,354 seizures.

I believe that if pot can be legal in other countries, than it should be legal in the United States too. The marijuana policy in the Netherlands is a failure. Dutch law, which allows marijuana to be bought, sold, and used openly, has resulted in increasing rates of pot use, particularly among youth. For more than twenty years, Dutch citizens over age eighteen have been permitted to buy and use cannabis, also in Holland, anyone more than fifteen years old can buy marijuana as easily as different flavors of ice cream. In the Netherlands adolescent marijuana use has increased 250 percent. In the late 1970's law allowed the Dutch government to create a set of guidelines under which coffee shops could sell marijuana without fear of criminal prosecution. I think that the children of the parents living in the Netherlands would be hard to raise because of all the pot surrounding them.

Marijuana makes users passive, lazy, and uninterested in the future. Students who use pot become underachievers and workers who use marijuana become unproductive. Young marijuana users are less likely to achieve their academic potential; pot keeps a person from functioning at full potential. It makes an above average student average, and an average student below average. These are just some of the things that people say about marijuana users. Studies of college students have found few differences between marijuana users and nonusers. Marijuana users and nonusers are equally inclined to participate in sports and extracurricular activities, and place equal value on achievement and success. I don't believe that pot makes people lazy, or makes them underachievers.

Even though I think pot should be legal, it does cause harm to your lungs. The effects of one marijuana joint on the lungs are equivalent to four tobacco cigarettes, placing the user at increased risk of bronchitis, emphysema, and bronchial asthma. A single joint contains the same amount of tar and other noxious substances as approximately fourteen to sixteen filtered cigarettes. Marijuana smokers typically inhale more deeply and retain smoke in their lungs longer than tobacco smokers. As a result, marijuana smokers get more dangerous material in the lungs each time they smoke. Smoking pot is very harmful to your health, family, and friends.

Some myths of marijuana and highway safety are marijuana-like alcohol- seriously impairs driving in some respects; pot is even more impairing than alcohol. I think this is true because marijuana does affect perception and driving ability. I believe that pot makes many people drive different, and it makes you a dangerous person at the wheel, while on this drug.

There are thousands of people around the world that are trying to prevent marijuana smoke. Drug education and prevention programs reduced marijuana use during the 1980's. Since then, our commitment has slackened, and pot use has been rising. There is no evidence that anti-drug messages diminish young people's interest in drugs. Anti-drug campaigns in the schools and the media may even make drugs more attractive. Marijuana use among the youth declined throughout the 1980's, and began increasing in the 1990's. This increase occurred despite young people's exposure to the most massive anti-marijuana campaign in American history.

Marijuana's persistence in the body varies from person to person, but normally the THC can stay in the brain for as long as two to five hours, although, pot stays in the blood stream for even longer. Many active drugs enter the body's fat cells too. The THC exits the fat cells slowly making traces of marijuana up to days and weeks following ingestion. The most important consequence of marijuana's slow excretion is that it can be detected in blood, urine, hair, and in tissue long after it is used. THC is eventually biotransformed into active metabolites. Thus if you have to take a drug test for a job you might not want to apply for that job a few weeks after you smoked. I think drug test are a good thing because, you don't want potheads working for you.

Marijuana is still the most commonly used drug in the United States and probably will be for years to come. Marijuana is on the rise and will increase in popularity throughout the United States. I'm sure that our government will eventually legalize marijuana, but not soon. Many people argue the pros and cons of pot. I think our government should at least try to see what would happen to the economy if pot was legal, even though it is a huge risk to take. This problem is argued as much as should the alcohol age be lowered again, many teenagers argue this because if there old enough to go to fight in a war, then you should be able to drink. Many younger kids smoke pot without a care and they don't realize the affects of the drug. America needs to start taking a larger action, and try to get the point across to the youth of America. This will always be a huge argument throughout the world. The question that everyone asks, should pot be legal in the United States.

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The Stone Angel

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When an individual exchange superficial materials for love, they tend to have poor relationships with the people that mean the most to them. Hagar had a very difficult time expressing her emotions to others because she believed it made her seem like a week person. She did not want to show any weakness toward her favorite son so she gave John the Currie pin. She thinks the Currie pin will express the way she feels about John. "John only put the pin in his pocket. Perhaps I should have given it to him when he was older"(15). Hagar tried in a sense to win her sons love but he thought nothing of the Currie pin. For the pin means a lot more to Hagar then it does to John. When Bram gave Hagar a cut-glass decanter for her wedding present, she got quits upset that it was not a gift with more dollar value. "All things in the musty, whey-smelling house were to be mine, such as they were, but when we entered, Bram handed me a cut-glass decanter with a silver top. 'This here is for you Hagar.' I took it so casually, and laid it aside, and thought no more of it" (51). Hagar did think of the gift as being thoughtful but cheep. She is very materialistic and likes only what is priceless. She believes it is the price not the thought that is behind a gift. Hagar love Tina very much, but she does not know how to express her love. Throughout the whole novel, The Stone Angle, Hagar has great difficulties trying to express her love towards people. In order to show her love to Tina she decides to give her, her sapphire ring, but she does not understand that love cannot be bought with material possessions. "What could I possibly tell her, I wounded, that could do her any good? She knows a lot more that I did when I married. Or maybe she doesn't, really. But who's to tell her? I haven't a word to send her, my granddaughter. Instead, I tug at my right hand, pull and shake, and finally wrench the ring" (7). Hagar tries had to show her affection towards her granddaughter, Tina, but the only thing that comes to her mind is the sapphire ring. Instead of telling Tina how much she loves her, she give her ring away. Hagar is afraid to show her emotions, which leads to her loneliness.

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Caste System Versus Love

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Mahasweta Devi's "Dhowli" is a sad story of an innocent young girl born in India with its caste system. Dhowli must follow the predetermined lifestyle of a Dusad untouchable. Following the events in her life, we see Dhowli grow from an innocent little girl (as seen through her past actions and decisions due to her circumstances) to a determined and persevering young girl.

Imagine having being put into a prearranged marriage at a very young age where there was no love between husband and wife. Dhowli accepted that. She accepted eating the daily left over food and being beaten up by her husband. She returned home after her husband died of fever because she didn't like the way her husband's brother was "eyeing her".

On the other hand, Dhowli loved to remember the fun times she had with her father when she was little. She also enjoyed the peace she found in the woods. She would lay down or go for a "dip in the stream".

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Dhowli knew that a widowed woman could never marry again; and that she also wanted a better life for herself than the other Dusad women. She did not want to be used by the Brahmans and ruin her life. So she wore a sari to cover herself. When the Misra boy told Dhowli how he felt about her, Dhowli tried to convince herself that she could never have a life with him, a noble man. But he was persistent in courting Dhowli and finally Dhowli in her innocence gave in and became pregnant. It was very sad that the Misra boy could not stand up to his father and his older brother about his intentions with Dhowli. She began believing in the Misra boy what he was telling her. He said that he would come back for her after one month and together they would open a shop outside their village. However, this was not to happen.

We come across Dhowli waiting at the bus stop, returning day after day for four months hoping the Misra boy will come back to her as he had promised. He never does show up. You can clearly see how persistent Dhowli is as she stands outside by the bus stop in the cold night braving a potentially dangerous encounter with a wolf that was seen in that area. I found it particularly interesting that they had depicted a wolf as an animal that makes people fearful and afraid. "Isn't she afraid? … The wolf was out last night. … Dhowli had also heard that the wolf was out, but she forgot about it." The wolf, to me, sounds like it represents a symbol of power. Perhaps the author is using the wolf in reference to the Brahmans since they are at the top of the caste system, people who hold the most power in their system.

After learning that the Misra boy has gotten married to another girl, Dhowli realizes that he is not coming back to her. She is determined to get money and food from him by demanding him to help support them. If he does not, she will tell everyone that she bore his son. However she does not follow through on her threat of exposing the Misra boy when he stopped sending anymore money and food that was promised to Dhowli.

Determined to support her family, Dhowli makes the ultimate sacrifice by opening up her door when she hears pebbles hitting her door late in the night. In exchange for sex she would get money and food. The Misra family is upset that she has found a way to support herself. They had hoped that she and her family would starve to death. At this point I believe the author tries to portray Dhowli as triumphant in overcoming all of the obstacles the Misra boy's family has put in her way. In the end the Brahman's kick her out of the village. We can hope and conclude that where Dhowli goes she will survive. She has gone through a lot and the worst is behind her. The future for her can only look brighter.

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Asymmetry in the Brain and in the Intensity of Emotional Expression in the Face

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Asymmetry in the Brain and in the Intensity of Emotional Expression in the Face

Abstract

Composites created using only the left side of a face and only the right side of the face were judged by participants as one being more intense in emotional expression than the other. Roughly half the participants looked at composites expressing negative emotion, and the other half looked at composites expressing positive emotion. The left side composites were rated above chance as being more intense in emotion than the right side composites. The group observing negative emotion expression chose composites of the left side of the face at a rate significantly greater than the group observing positive emotion expression. The findings are consistent with previous research suggesting the right hemisphere of the brain is more involved in emotional processes than the left hemisphere. The results also suggest that emotional expression is assymmetrical in the face being more intense in the left side of the face and that this effect is stronger for the negative emotion condition.

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There is a basic crossing in the nervous system, particularly concerning sensory input and motor output. The right and left hemispheres of the brain have also been shown to be assymmetrical and differ in their function, which is called hemispheric specialization. There have been studies conducted in this area using patients with brain damage in different hemispheres, where movies shown to elicit emotions were viewed. Both the left brain-damaged patients and the participants without brain-damage often looked away from the screen when unpleasant material was shown, whereas right brain-damaged patients rarely did, suggesting that the right side of the brain is patricularly involved in the degree of emotional involvement or manner of coping with stress, which was reduced in these patients (A. Mammucari, C. Caltagirone, P. Ekman, W. Friesan, G. Gainotti, L Pizzamiglio and P. Zoccolotti, 187). There is also other evidence to suggest the right side of the brain is more involved in the processing and expression of emotions than the left hemisphere. It was proposed by Wolff (Wolff, 14 cited in Sackeim and Gur, 00) that the right side of the face is percieved as more similar to the whole face than the left side, however it was later discovered by Gilbert and Bakan (17, cited in Sackeim and Gur, 00) that rather than assymmetries in facial expression, these results were produced by a bias of the perciever having greater ability in the right hemisphere of the brain in facial recognition than the left hemisphere. However the possibility that facial expression is assymmetrical was not disproven.

Therefore the question arose of whether the expression of emotions in the face is assymmetrical and as there is a basic crossing in the nervous system, if the emotions are expressed more intensely on the left side of the face. It is also thought the right hemisphere could possibly be more involved in processing negative information than the left, and a second question was generated of whether this effect was stronger for negative emotional expressions as compared to positive emotional expressions. To test this, composites of faces were constructed using the left side of the face and its mirror image referred to as left-left composites (LL) and the right side of the face and its mirror image referred to as right-right composites (RR). Participants were divided into two groups, one group observing negative emotion composites of LL and RR and the other observing positive emotion composites, and were asked to choose which composite expressed emotion more intensely. It was hypothesised that the LL composites would be chosen more often that the RR composites as more emotionally expressive for both the positive and negative emotion condition. If supported, this would suggest that emotions are expressed more intensely in the left side of the face than the right. A second hypothesis was generated that the effect would be stronger for the negative emotion condition than the positive emotion condition, and if both hypotheses were supported it would suggest the right hemiphere is particularly involved in processing negative information.

Method

Participants

The participants were 484 undergraduates at the University of Western Australia. A coin was tossed by each participant which determined which group they were allocated to. One group looked at faces that expressed negative emotions which consisted of 8 students, and the other group looked at faces conveying positive emotions which consisted of 46 students.

Apparatus

Sixteen composites of faces were constructed for negative emotions and 16 composites constructed for positive emotions. They were created using black and white photographs of faces, the models of who deliberately conveyed a negative or positive emotion. These photographs from the study conducted by Ekman and Friesan (175) on recognition of emotions in faces, and the mirror image of these photographs were cut vertically through the midline of the face, and the left side and its reversal were joined to make a LL composite, and the right side of the face and its reversal were joined to make a RR composite, creating symmetrical composites using only one side of the face. Half of the faces were created from male models and the other half using female models. The faces were presented on computers and the data was entered into the computers.

Procedure

The group of participants determined by a coin toss to look at negative emotion composites of faces were presented with a slide consisting simultaneously of two faces being the LL composite and RR composite constructed from the original face and its reversal. These were positioned vertically to eliminate perciever bias. The faces remained on the screen for 10 seconds and the viewer was required to choose which face expressed the emotion more intesely. A 0 second inter-trial interval then followed and the process was repeated using different composites of faces expressing negative emotion. Eight slides of two composites were shown in total. The process was the same for those participants in the other group except positive emotion composites only were used. A forced choice format was used, requiring the participants to make a choice between the top or bottom composites and neither was not a given option. This was to reduce the number of responses so a measurable outcome was produced. The gender of the model in the photographs and the position of the faces (if LL or RR was on top) were ordered non-systematically.

Results

The data was screened for outliers to generate statistics more accurately representing the participants. For the purpose of conducting a general comparison, statistics for the entire sample size of participants were calculated as well as for both the groups who looked at negative emotion composites and positive emotion composites. The sample size of participants in the study overall was 484, with 46 of those participants in the positive image group and 8 in the negative image group. The mean number for the entire group out of 8 in which the participant chose the LL composite face was 4.74, with 4.64 being the mean number chosen for the positive image group and 4.5 being the mean for the negative image group. All groups performed above what would be considered chance.

In order to measure the dispersion in the distribution of scores, the standard deviation was calculated. For all the participants a standard deviation of 1.0 was calculated, the positive image group had a standard deviation of 1.15 and the negative image group a standard deviation of 1.00. To determine if the means were significantly different from each other, the confidence interval was calculated as shown in table 1. The confidence interval indicates a 5% probability that a given result lies within that range. TABLE and GRAPH

TABLE 1.

Statistics for the Number of Times Left-left Composites were chosen out of Eight in each Group.

Group Sample Mean Standard 5% CI 5% CI

Size Deviation Lower Bound Upper Bound

Overall 484 4.7 1.0 4.6 4.8

Negative 8 4.5 1.00 4.8 5.07

Positive 466 4.64 1.15 4.50 4.7

Discussion

The hypothesis that the left side of the face expresses emotion more intensely than the right side was supported by the results of the experiment as the number of times the LL composites were chosen was significantly greater on average at 4.7 out of 8, than the chance level of performance at 4 out of 8. This is also consistent with findings that right hemisphere is dominant in emotional processes. The lower bound of the 5% confidence interval of the overall sample mean was greater than four indicating a significant effect, implying that the left side of the face is more expressive of emotions.

The second hypothesis that the lateralization of emotion effect is stronger for the expression of negative emotions compared to positive emotions was also supported by the data collected. This was determined using a sample t-test. The mean number of times the LL composites were chosen in the negative condition was significantly greater than, t(48)= .0, p .01 (-tailed). Both the hypotheses were supported.

These findings have implications on the social adaptedness of emotional expression, as when face to face with another person, it is likely that the left side of the face is opposite the right side of the other persons face, meaning that the hemisphere inferior in emotional processes recieves information from the side of the face more expressive in emotion, which may be advantageous or disadvantageous depending on the situation (Sakeim and Gur, 178).

There were several limitations of the experiment. The models in the photographs used were asked to express certain emotions in their face however they may not have felt the actual emotions and this may have an effect on how well the research applies to a realistic situation. Only eight trials were used which seems limited considering the wide range of emotional expression possible. Black and white photographs were used which again is further from a realistic situation than desired. It is also a matter for future research to observe whether the right or left-handedness of models or participants have an effect on the results, and to apply the experiment cross-culturally.

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