Jesus a prophet of islam?

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This is the first chapter of a very interesting book I found called Jesus A prophet of Islam- a commendable effort to study the sacred life of Jesus (pbuh) using both Christian and Muslim sources- A penetrating scholarly study which explores the origins of Christinity by examining all the evidence with thoroughness and care to separate the facts from the myths. It includes a study of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Christian Scripture, Gospel of Barnabas, Quran and Hadeeth. It is the result of thirty years of study! I advise anyone who can get a hold of it to do so... or wait till summer cuz I plan on typing it all up inshAllah. The other chapters are A Historical Account of Jesus, The Gospel of Barnabas, The Shepherd of Hermas, Barnabas and the Early Christians, Early Unitarians in Christianity, Later Unitarians in Christianity, Christianity Today, Jesus in the Quran, Jesus in Hadeeth.

THE UNITARIAN VIEW AND CHRISTIANITY

Historical research has shown that the animism and idol worship of primitive peoples in the world is in all cases a regression from an original unitive belief, and the One-god of Judaism, Christianity and Islam grew up in opposition to many-gods rather than evolving out of them. Thus in any tradition, the pure teaching is to be found at its beginning and what follows is necessarily a decline, and it is from this perspective that the history of Christianity should be viewed. It began with the belief in One God and was then corrupted, and the doctrine of the Trinity came to be accepted. The result was a confusion which led men more and more away from sanity.

In the first century after the disappearance of Jesus, those who followed him continued to affirm the Divine Unity. This is illustrated by the fact that the Shepherd of Hermas, written in about 0 A.D. was regarded as a book of Revelation by the Church. The first of the twelve commandments which it contains begins

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First of all, believe that God is One and that He created all things and organised them and out of what did not exist made all things to be, and He contains all things but alone is Himself uncontained...[The Apostolic Fathers, E.J. Goodspeed]

According to Theodore Zahn, the article of faith up until about 50 A.D. was, I belive in God, the Almighty [Articles of the Apostolic Creed, Theodore Zahn, pp. -7]. Between 180 and 10 A.D. the word Father was added before the Almighty. This was bitterly contested by a number of the leaders of the Church. Bishop Victor and Bishop Zephysius are on record as condemning this movement, since they regarded it an unthinkable sacrilege to add or subtract any word to the Scriptures. They opposed the tendencey to regard Jesus as divine. They laid great stress on the Unity of God as expressed in the original teachings of Jesus and asserted that although he was a prophet, he was essentially a man like other men, even if highly favoured by his Lord. The same faith was held by the Churches which had sprung up in North Africa and West Asia.

As the teaching of Jesus was spread, it came into contact with other cultures and into conflict with those in authority. It began to be assimilated and adapted by these cultures and was also altered to diminsh persecution by the rulers. In Greece, especially, it became metamorphosed, both by its being expressed in a new language for the first time, and by its realignment with the ideas and philosophy of that culture. It was teh many-gods viewpoint of the Greeks which largely contributed to the formulation of this doctrine of the Trinity, together with the gradual elevation of Jesus by some, notably Paul of Tasus, from a prophet to God.

It was only in 5 A.D. that the doctrine of the Trinity was declared to be the orthodox Christian belief. Even then some of those who signed the creed did not believe in it, as they could find no authority for it in the Scriptures. Athanasius, who is considered to be the father of this creed, was himself not very sure of its truth. He admits that, Whenever he forced his understanding to meditate on the divinity of Jesus, his toilsome and unavailing efforts recoiled on themselves- that the more he wrote the less capable was he of expressing his thoughts. At one point he even wrote, There are not three but ONE GOD. His belief in the doctrine of the Trinity was not based on conviction but on policy and apparent necessity.

That this historic decision was based just as much on political expediency as on the faulty reasoning of philosophy is shown by the part played by Constantine, the pagan emperor of Rome, who presided over the council of Nicea. The growing communities of Christians were a force whose opposition he had no wish for, who weakened his Empire and whose support would be invaluable in strengthening it. By remodelling Christianity, he hoped to gain the Churchs support and at the same time end the confusion which had arisen within it and which was the source of yet more convlict within his empire.

The process by which he partially acheived this aim may be illustrated by an incident which occured in the Second World War. Once, as the time for the Muslim festival of the Id drew near, propaganda from Tokyo began to concentrate on an Id prayer that was going to be held in Singapore, then under Japanses occupation. It would be an historic occasion, it was announced, and its effect would be felt throughout the Muslim world. This sudden emphasis on the prayer abruptly stopped after a few days. The mystery was solved when a Japanese prisoner was taken in a skirmish and interrogated. He said that Tojo, the head of the Japansese government, was planning to take on the role of the greates Muslim reformer of modern times. He had a scheme to adjust the teachings of Islam to the requirements of the modern age. It had therefore become necessary, according to him, that the Muslims, instead of facing Mecca in prayer, should start facing Tokyo, which would become the future centre of Islam under Tojo. The Muslims refused this reorientation of Islam, and so the whole project was dropped. As a result, there was no Id prayer allowedi n Singapore that year. Tojo had realised the imoprtance of Islam and he wanted to use it as a means to further his imperialistic designs, but he was unsuccessful. Constantine succeeded where Tojo failed. Rome replaced Jerusalem as the center of Pauline Christianity.

This degeneration of the pure teachings of Jesus, which resulted inevitable in the acceptance of a many-god Christianniy, never went unchallenged. When, in 5 A.D., the doctrine of Trinity was officially proposed as the orthodox Christian doctrine, Arius, one of the leaders of the Christians in North Africa, stood up agains the combined might of Constantine and the Catholic Church and reminded them that Jesus had alawys affirmed the Divine Unity. Constantine tried to crush the troublesome One-God people with all the force and brutality at his command, but he failed. Although, ironically, Constantine himself died a Unitarian, the doctrine of Trinity eventually became officially accepted as the basis of Christianity in Europe. This doctrine caused much confusion among men, many of whom were told to believe it without trying to understand it. Yet it was not possible to stop people from trying to prove aned eplain it intellectually. Broadly speaking, three schools of thought developed. The first is associated with St. Augustine, who lived in the 4th century and was of the view that the doctrine could not be proved but could be illustrated. St. Victor, who lived in the 1th century is associated with the second school, who believed that the docterine could be both demonstrated and illustrated. And the 14th century saw the growht of the third school, which believed that the doctrine of Trinity could be neither illustrated nor proved, but should be blindly accepted and believed.

Although the books into which Jesuss teaching had gone were either completely destroyed, supprressed, or changed in order to avoid any blatant contradictions of the doctrine, a good deal of truth remained in the ones which survived, and therefore to sustain belief in the doctrine of Trinity, there was a shift in emphasis from what the Scriptures said, to what the leaders of the Church said. The doctrine, it was asserted, was based on the special revelation made to the Church, the Bride of Jesus. Thus, for instance, Fr Fulgentio was reprimanded by the Pope in a letter saying Preaching of the Scriptures is a suspicious thing. He who keeps close to the Scriptures will ruin the Catholic faith. In his next letter he was more explicit, warning against too much insistence on the Scriptures ...which is a book if anyone keeps close to, he will quite destroy the Catholic Church. [Tetradymus, John Toland]

The effective abandoning of the teaching of Jesus was largely due to complete obscuring of his historical reality. The Church made religion not only independent of the Scriptures but also independent of Jesus, so that the man Jesus became confused with a mythological Christ. Belief in Jesus, however, does not necessarily mean belief in a resurrected Christ. Whereas the immediate followers of Jesus had based their lives on his example, Pauline Christianity was based on a belief in Christ after his supposed crucifixion, and the life and teaching of Jesus while he was alive was no longer important.

As the established Church distanced itself further and further from the teaching of Jesus, so its leaders became more and more involved in the affairs of those in authority over the land. As the distinctions between what Jesus had taught and what those in authority desired became blurred and began to merge into each other, the Church, while asserting its seprateness from the State, became more and more identified with it, and grew in power. Whereas in the early days the Church was subject to imperial power, once it had compromised iitself completely, the position was reversed.

There was always opposition to these deviations from what Jesus had taught. As the Church became more powerful, it became very dangerous to deny the Trinity, and led to almost certain death. Although Luther left the Roman Church, his revolt was only against the authority of the Pope, rather than against the fundamental doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church. The result was that he founded a new Church and became its head. All the basic Christian doctrines were accepted, and remained. This led to the establishment of a number of Reformed Churches and sects, but pre-Reformation Christianity remained undisturbed. These two main bodies of the Pauline Church have continued to exist up to the present day.

In North Africa and West Asia the teachings of Arius were accepted by the majority of the people who readily embraced Islam when it later came to them. Because they had held to the doctrine of One-God and the pure teachigns of Jesus,, they recognised Islam as the truth.

In Europe the thread of unitarianism within Christianity has never been broken, and the mnovement has in fact grown in strength, surviving the continual and brutal persecution of the established Churches in the past and their indifference today.

More and more people are now aware that the Christianity they know has little to do with the original teaching of Jesus. During the last two centuries the research of the historians has left little room for faith in the Christian mysteries, but the proven fact that the Christ of the established Church has almost nothing to do wiht the Jesus of history does not in itself helpe Christians towards the Truth. The present dilemma of the Christians is illustrated by what the Church historians of this present century write. The fundamental difficulty is, as pointed by Adolf Harnack, that By the fourth century the living Gospel had been masked in Greek phiolosphy. It was the historians mission to pluck off the mask and thus reveal how different had been the original contours of the faith beneath. But then Harnack points out the difficult of fulfilling this task by saying that the doctrinal mask worn long enough can reshape the face of religion The mask acquires a life o its own- the Trinity, the two natures of Christ, infallibilty, and all propositions seconding these dogmas, were the product of historic decisions and of situations that might have turned out quite differently...nevertheless...early or late, product or reshaping fore, this dogma remains what it has been from the beginning, a bad habit of intellectualization which the Christians picked up from the Greek when he fled from the Jews [Outline of the History of Dogma, Adolf Harnack]

Harnack enlarges on his theme in another book, where he admits that

...the fourth Gospel does not emanate or profess to emanate from the apostle John, who cannot be taken as an historical authority... the author of the fourth Gospel acted with sovereign freedom, transposed events and put them in a strange light. He drew up the discussions himself and illustrated great thoughts with imaginary situations. He further refers to the work of the famous Christian historian, David Strauss, whom he describes as having almost destroyed the historic credibility not only of the fourth but also of the first three Gospels as well. [What is Christianity?, Adolf Harnack, p. 0]

According to Johannes Lehmann, another historian, the writers of the four accepted Gospels describe a different Jesus from the one who can be identified by historic reality. Lehman quotes Heinz Zahrnt who points out the consequences of this

If historical research could prove that an irreconcilable antithesis exists between the historical Jesus and Christ as preached, and therefore that belief in Jesus has no support in Jesus himself, that would not only be absolutely fatal theologically, as N.A Dahl says, but would also mean the end of all Christology. Yet I am convinced that even then we theologians would be able to find a way out- was there ever a time when we couldnt? - but we are either lying now or would by lying then [The Jesus Report, J. Lehman (quoting from Krewz Verlag, Stuttgart, nd ed., 160, p. 11)]

While these few short quotations illustrate the dilemma Christianity is in today, the words of Zahrnt also demonstrate something far more serious which underlies this that it is possible to get so involved with the details of what became of Jesuss teaching and the Churches and sects which followed after him, that the original pupose of his teaching is overlooked or forgotten. Thus Theodore Zahn, for instance, illustrates the bitter conflicts within the established Churches. He points out that the Roman Catholics accuse the Greek Orthodox Church of remodelling the text of the holy Scriptures by additions and subtractions with good and bad intentions, the Greeks in turn point out that the Catholics themselves in places depart very far from the original text, and, in spite of their differences, they combine to accuse the non-conformist Christians of deviating from the true way and condemn them as hereteics, and the heretics in their turn accuse the Catholics of having recoined the Truth like forgers. He concludes, Do not facts support these accusations? [Articles of the Apostolic Creed, Theodore Zahn]

Jesus himself is completely forgotten. Those who are aware of the degeneration that has taken place and who wish in all sincerity to return to and live by the original teaching of Jesus are prevented from doing so because the original teaching in its totality has disappeared and is irrecoverable.

Erasmus had this to say

The ancients philosophied very little about divine things... Formerly faith was in life rather than in profession of creeds.. When faith came to be in writings rather than in hearts, then there were almost as many faiths as men. Articles increased and sincerity decreased. Contentions grew hot and love grew cold. The doctrine of Christ which at first knew no hair-splitting came to depend on the aid of philosophy. This was the first stage in the decline of the Church.

Thus the Church was forced to explain what could not be expressed in words, and recourse was taken by both sides to with the support of the Emperor. Erasmus, commenting on this, continued

The injection of the authority of the Emperor into this affair did not greatly aid the sincerity of faith.. When faith is in the mouth rather than in the heart, when the solid knowledge of sacred Scriptures fails us, nevertheless by terrorization we drive men to believe what they do not believe, to love what they do not love, to know what they do not know. That which is forced cannot be sincere. [Erasmi Epistolai, 14 ed. P.S. Allen, V, pp. 17-]

Erasmus understood that the first Christians, the immediate followers of Jesus, had a recognition of the Unity which they never had to express, and that when his teaching spread and conflict between the Churches grew up, the mn of understanding were forced to try and explain their knowledge of Reality. They had by then lost the teaching of Jesus in its totality and the language of Unity that went with it. They only had recourse to the vocabulaty and terminology of Greek phiolosophy which looked not to Unity but to a tripartite view of existence. And so simple and pure trust in Reality became inevitably couched in a language foreign to Jesus, and led to the formulation of the doctrine of the Trinity, with the deification of Jesus and the Holy Spirit. Confusion and schism were the inevitable results which followed when men lost sight of the Unity of Existence.

This understanding is essential to anyone who wants to know who Jesus was and what he really taught, together with the knowledge that once people no longer have recourse to all the everyday actions of a prophet, which are no less than the embodiment of his teaching, they are in loss, whether they believe in the doctrine of the Trininty or vocally affirm the Divine Unity.

Surah Al-Anam Ayah

And the life of this world is nothing but play and amusement. But far better is the house in the Hereafter for those who are Al­Muttaqun (the pious). Will you not then understand?

Surah Al-Ankabut Ayah 64

And this life of the world is only amusement and play! Verily, the home of the Hereafter, that is the life indeed (i.e. the eternal life that will never end), if they but knew

Surah Muhammad Ayah 6

The life of this world is but play and pastime, but if you believe (in the Oneness of Allah Islamic Monotheism), and fear Allah, and avoid evil, He will grant you your wages, and will not ask you your wealth.

Surah Al-Hadid Ayah 0

Know that the life of this world is only play and amusement, pomp and mutual boasting among you, and rivalry in respect of wealth and children, as the likeness of vegetation after rain, thereof the growth is pleasing to the tiller; afterwards it dries up and you see it turning yellow; then it becomes straw. But in the Hereafter (there is) a severe torment (for the disbelievers, evil-doers), and (there is) Forgiveness from Allah and (His) Good Pleasure (for the believers, good-doers), whereas the life of this world is only a deceiving enjoyment.

The Prophet (saw) said, There will be none among you but will be talked to by Allah on the Day of Resurrection, without there being an interpreter between him and Him (Allah) . He will look and see nothing ahead of him, and then he will look (again for the second time) in front of him, and the (Hell) Fire will confront him. So, whoever among you can save himself from the Fire, should do so even with one half of a date (to give in charity). (Saheeh Bukhari)

Abdullah bin Umar said, Allahs Apostle took hold of my shoulder and said, Be in this world as if you were a stranger or a traveler. The sub-narrator added Ibn Umar used to say, If you survive till the evening, do not expect to be alive in the morning, and if you survive till the morning, do not expect to be alive in the evening, and take from your health for your sickness, and (take) from your life for your death. (Saheeh Bukhari)

Imaam Ahmad ibn Hanbal, radhiallaahu `anhu, narrated that Abu-d-Dardaa', radhiallaahu `anhu, once said If only you knew what you will certainly see upon your death, you would never again eat a single bite out of a craving appetite, and you would never again drink an extra sip of water for the pleasure of unquenchable and insatiable thirst. Hence, you will remain outdoor in perpetuity, bewildered and awaiting the unexpected, and you will never again seek comfort in a shelter or seek a shade. You will wander aimlessly and climb the hilltops of every mountain, you will look up towards the heavens and beseech your Lord for mercy, and you will beat on your chest and cry endlessly, and you will wish that you were a little vegetable - a pant which is protected to grow, and then plucked to be eaten by a hungry person passing along.

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Superstitions

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Superstitions are thought to be irrational and resulting from either ignorance or fear of the unknown. It implies a belief in unseen and unknown forces that can be influenced by objects and rituals. Some believe that superstitions can take control of their life. Superstitions have a way of making their way throughout the years. It's in our human nature to come up with something to believe in, however obscure and ridiculous it may be. Many of these superstitions can dramatically affect a person's life.

There are countless pages of superstitions and no one believes in the same ones as others. Superstitions vary according to your religion, your culture and the way you live. Some of them we do without thinking. For example someone sneezes, and many nearby will automatically respond with a hearty, Bless you! When we react to that sneeze with a blessing, we are continuing a superstition that is hundreds, perhaps thousands, of years old. Back in the age of Elizabeth, everyone knew that when you opened your mouth to sneeze, you gave the devil an entrance into your body. The blessing warded off any possibility of harm, for of course no demon could remain in a place where one Christian blessed another. What we now do from politeness, early Englishmen did to protect their fellows from spiritual harm.

Superstitions are involved in everything. When dreaming, most people believe that what was in their dream reflects what is going to happen in their life. To see a baby in your dream signifies innocence, warmth and new beginnings. A love affair may be blooming for you in your near future. You will also make new and fun friends. If a woman dreams she is nursing a baby, she will be deceived by the one she trusts the most. To dream of a clean, white bed denotes the end of worries. Dreaming of a cat is a generally unfortunate omen and it shows treachery as well as a run of bad luck. If you should dream of a deceased person and this person speaks only to you, pay close attention to what the spirit is telling you as it could be very important to you. A light shining out of the dark, or a flashlight beam, shows that you will finally find the truth in a situation or the answer to a personal problem that you have been searching for. If the light is dim, you will only find part of the solution. Dreaming of a marriage, or a wedding, is the sign of a death in the family. If the marriage was between strangers, then the death pertains to a not too close acquaintance or friend. This can go on forever because all people have different dreams and the only thing that comes to my mind at the moment is what is going to happen to someone like me who doesn't remember most of my dreams?

On the other hand most people believe in common superstitions which evolved by time. Like when seeing a black cat.

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The Development of Anti-Semitism in Nazi Germany

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Hitler's hatred towards the Jews was known as "anti-Semitism." When Hitler came to power in Germany, he preached to his followers that "the Jews are the image of the devil" and he blamed them for all of the problems in the world. When Hitler was 18, he arrived in Vienna hoping to get accepted into the Academy of Fine Arts as he wanted to become an artist. When he was rejected, he blamed the Jews for his setbacks. Hitler believed that the Germans were the superior race and that job positions and money were wasted on people like the Jews. He despised them and did not want them to be successful in his country. By the time Hitler left Vienna, he was a full-fledged anti-Semite and in his autobiography "Mein Kampf," which he wrote in 14, he made his hatred of the Jews known. Hitler believed that the Jewish people were the "eternal enemy" and that in order to save the German people; he had to exterminate them. Not only some of the Jews, but all of them.

After World War I, Germany was devastated and the German people had lost all hope. Adolf Hitler gave them faith and he reunited the masses under a common bond of hatred towards the Jews. He blamed them for Germanys loss of World War I. He told the German people that they could have won the first world war if Germany had not been stabbed in the back by the Jews and their conspirators. When Hitler established the Nazi Party, he had many followers as people sought hope in him after the war. In his emotional and persuasive speeches, he made his promise to murder the Jewish people of Europe. After Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany on January 0th 1, his attack on the Jews commenced. He preached to his SS troops that The Jew is a parasite. Wherever he flourishes, the people die...elimination of the Jew from our community is to be regarded as an emergency defense measure. In Germany, hundreds of Jews were murdered and over 5,000 fled. On April 1st 1, the Nazi boycott of Jewish stores began. Their stores were vandalized and Germans were discouraged from buying anything from a Jew. On May 10th 1, thousands of books were burnt in the cities throughout Germany. Anything that had been written by a Jew or by a foreign writer was thrown into the fire. In regards to this event, Heinrich Heine who was a German-Jewish poet from 177-1856 said "Where one burns books, one will, in the end, burn people."

On August nd 14, after the death of the German president Von Hindenburg, Hitler declared himself the "leader" of Germany and using his powers he made the German military the servant of a criminal regime and fully implicated it in the destruction of the Jews. In 15, Hitler passed the Nurembourg Laws which took German citizenship away from them, banned marriage and sexual relationships between Jews and non-Jews in Germany and forced all Jews to wear a yellow Star of David on their clothes or they would be shot. The Nazi Party began to establish interrogation and torture chambers in basements of regular apartment buildings throughout Berlin. The first concentration camp was opened at Dachau, a suburb of Munich to concentrate "all communist and social democrat officials who cannot be allowed to remain free as they continue to agitate unrest." The Nazis were now in firm control of Germany and violence struck the Jews in German cities.

In 18, riots broke out throughout Germany after a Jew had murdered a German diplomat in Paris. Thousands of Jewish shops were smashed and thousands of Jews were arrested. Nazi propaganda made people believe that the Jews were a threat and that they should be sent to concentration camps or be humiliated and maltreated in public such as forcing them to clean the streets with toothbrushes while being kicked and laughed at by the non-Jews. Thousands of Jewish shops, synagogues and houses continued to be destroyed and when the Second World War began in 1, the Nazi Party's anti-Semitism took a murderous turning point. After the invasion of Poland and Russia more Jews came under Nazi control and in 141, Hitler ordered the annihilation of the entire Jewish population in Europe. The Nazis referred to this program as the "Final Solution" of the "Jewish Problem." In March 141, Adolf Hitler said that "This struggle is one of ideologies and racial differences and will have to be conducted with unprecedented unmerciful and unrelenting harshness."

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In July, local anti-Semites abused Jewish women in the streets of Lvov, Ukraine, dozens were murdered and women were raped. On July th and 0th after the Germans had captured the city, 5000 Jews were rounded up and massacred by the Utoranian militia. On the nd of August 141, W. Sakowicz who was the president of Ponary, Poland and was later murdered by the Nazis said "There were terrible tortures before shooting. Nobody buried the murdered. The people were herded straight into the pit, the corpses were trampled on. Many of the wounded writhed with pain. Nobody finished them off." The Jewish people were constantly being murdered by SS troops and were thrown onto the streets or into huge pits of hundreds of corpses. Erich Fuchs also explains another way in which Jews were murdered; "I installed shower heads in the gas chambers. The nozzles were not connected to any water pipes; they would serve as camouflage for the gas chamber. For the Jews who were gassed it would seem as if they were being taken to baths and for disinfection." Gas chambers were built for the mass murder of thousands of Jews and were established in all of the death camps around Europe.

When the Allies began to advance, they discovered the horrors and the atrocities of the death camps and in 145, after the war had ended and the Germans had lost, people around the world found it hard to believe that this inhumane, cold-blooded extermination had ever taken place. A few soldiers who were members of the Nazi Party said that they feared their leaders and were simply doing their jobs and obeying orders. Other soldiers felt that killing the Jews did not matter because Hitler had brainwashed them into thinking that since the Jews were not regarded as human, it was not relevant whether they died or not. By the time the German government fell, its leaders and its followers had murdered an estimated six million European Jews as well as untold numbers of Slavs, Gypsies, homosexuals and any others who did not fit the perfect "Aryan mold." The systematic Nazi destruction of almost an entire race is known as the Holocaust and will always be remembered for the savagery and cruelty that was inflicted on so many by so few.

Bibliography

1. Mazour, Anatole G, Peoples, John M. World History People and Nations. Holt,

Rhinehart & Winston, Inc. Orlando, Florida 1.

. Quotes taken from the Imperial War Museum

. Holocaust handouts

4. Slater, Nathalie. Anti-Semitism. 1

http//www.first-vbs.at/projekte/004_4c_wwweb/natalie_anti-semitism.htm

5. Robinson, Plater. Deathly Silence Guide Everyday People in the Holocaust. 17

http//www.tulane.edu/-so-inst/d.htm.

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Julius Caesar's and Brutus's Tragic Flaws

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In Julius Caesar, by William Shakespeare the lives of the two main characters, Julius Caesar, the leader of Rome's army and Marcus Brutus, his loyal friend, tragically end. Julius Caesar and Brutus both have flaws. These flaws are what make this play great and tragic. Caesar was a proud ambitious leader who was feared to become too powerful and be made a dictator. Brutus' flaw was as Anthony said that he was an "honorable man". These flaws make the play interesting.

Julius Caesar's biggest flaw was his pride. He ignored warnings from people. He was told by a soothsayer to "Beware the ides of March" but Caesar ignored the warning and called the man a dreamer. He is ignores the warning of his wife Calpurnia. His wife has a dream that the senators were washing their hands in Caesars blood in front of Pompey's statue. Caesar then decides to stay and not go to the senate.

However Caesar's other flaw kicks in his vanity. Despite all the signs of true danger Caesar was convinced to go to the senate. Decius sees this flaw and takes advantage of it. He says that the Senate was going to give him the crown but might change its mind if he didn't come. Decius also said that Caesar would lose the peoples respect if they saw that he was cowardly. He said that the people wouldn't take him seriously if they knew that because his wife had a bad dream that he was not going to go to the senate.

Brutus's major flaw was his honor. His flaw was particularly his honor for Rome. He killed his best friend for the good of Rome. He didn't want Caesar to become too powerful and then become a permanent dictator. Brutus did love Caesar dearly he said, "As he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew him", meaning that Caesar was a good man with good attributes but Brutus had to stop him to protect Rome.

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Brutus wanted to carve Caesar as "A dish fit for the gods", for he didn't want to just butcher Caesar. Caesar's last words were, "E Tu Brutte, E Tu?" this must have left great guilt on Brutus who had betrayed one of his closest friends.

Caesars major flaw was his pride. This flaw in the end caused his death. Brutus's flaw was his great honor and love for Rome. He had the noblest intentions of all the conspirators who killed Caesar. He only killed Caesar for the good of Rome. His nobility is recognized by Anthony who says "This was the noblest Roman of them all". These flaws are what make this play a good tragedy according to Aristotle.

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Mice and Men

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Of Mice and Men

George was right in his decision to take Lennie's life, because Lennie wasn't smart enough to take care of himself, George knew Lennie better than anyone else, and killed Lennie peacefully. Lennie was a developmentally disabled. He could not take care of himself, or make logical decisions for himself, and relied on George to take care of him. George knew Lennie better than anyone else, and took care of him. George made all the decisions for Lennie because of that Lennie would have been killed cruelly, or tortured for the rest of his life if George hadn't taken his life. If Curley had found Lennie first, Lennie would have been shot in the stomach, which is the most painful way to die from a gunshot. For those reasons George was right for Taking Lennies life. Lennie because of George died peacefully, and didnt suffer.

Lennie wasn't smart enough to take care of himself. He was completely depended on George to take care of him, and look out for him. George took care of Lennie, defending him, getting him jobs, telling him what to do, and making his decisions for him. When Curley interviewed Lennie and George, George told Lennie not to talk so that the boss wouldnt find out he was dumb. Lennie was kicked in the head by a horse when he was a boy, and because of that isnt smart enough to take care of himself. Lennie was developmentally disabled, couldnt control his strength. Lennie was obsessed with soft materials and items, like mice, and velvet. Because he couldnt control his strength, he accidentally killed mice, the puppy, and Curley's wife. Even though Lennie was mentally disabled, be had a good heart, and didn't mean to hurt anyone, or anything. George had to decide what would be best for Lennie after he accidentally killed Curley's wife.

George knew Lennie better than anyone else. George and Lennie traveled together. George and Lennie had known each other a long time. They had worked together before on other farms, and were saving money to buy their own land. George had taken it on himself to take care of Lennie, and in order to take care of someone you have to know them. George knew that if Lennie were caught he would have been either brutally murdered, or locked up and tortured for the rest of his life. George knew Lennie would have rather died peacefully than be tortured, or killed brutally. If Curly had found Lennie, he would have shot Lennie in the stomach. George knew he had to make this decision for him, and made what he thought was the best decision for Lennie. George knew that even if Lennie were put in prison, he would be unhappy. The only thing Lennie wanted in life was to live with George, and tend the rabbits, and if Lennie were in prison he would never have the chance to be happy. Lennie would know his dream would never become true, and George knew he wouldn't be happy.

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George took Lennies life peacefully, and without pain. George shot Lennie with a Lugar pistol, which is a very powerful pistol, so when Lennie was shot in the back of the head, it killed him instantly. George told Lennie to think about the farm they had dreamed about, and told him to look down the river into the horizon. George told Lennie to do that so he would be thinking happy thoughts. Lennie did not have any idea that he was going to die. By having Lennie tell George about how he wanted to tend the rabbits he distracted him. When Lennie died he was thinking about this dream, and was very happy. By George taking Lennies life the way he did, he saved Lennie from a painful death by a gunshot to the stomach. A gunshot wound to the stomach is the most painful was to die from a gunshot because you bleed internally to death, and it can take many hours to pass away. George was right for killing Lennie the way he did, and saved Lenny from suffering.

George was right in his decision to take Lennie's life, because Lennie wasn't smart enough to take care of himself, knew him enough to know he would be unhappy, and granted Lennie a peaceful death. Lennie was a people dependent. He could not take care of himself, or make logical decisions for himself, and relied on George to take care of him. George knew Lennie better than anyone else, and took care of him. George made all the decisions for Lennie because of that Lennie would have been killed cruelly, or tortured for the rest of his life if George hadn't taken his life. If Curley had found Lennie first, Lennie would have been shot in the stomach, which is the most painful way to die from a gunshot. For those reasons George was right for Taking Lennies life. Lennie because of George died peacefully, and didnt suffer, which is the reason George was right.

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FATE AND FREEWILL

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FATE AND FREEWILL IN THE ODYSSEY

When looking at Greek Mythology we often encounter the gods of that era. Sometimes they are merely backdrops to the human element of a story but in tales such as The Odyssey, gods play a prominent if not vital role to the central themes of the poem. Fate has a function position in the Greek world but its role is not the same as it is in other cultures. It is important to understand the word before we discuss in relation to the Odyssey. Fate as far as Greek mythology is concerned is not just fate. By most standards fate means that things occur for an unknown reason that no one has any control over. However, in the world of Greek Mythology fate does not just happen. The gods inveigle fate and they interfere to make things happen that might not otherwise have happened. Since the characters do not always know of the gods involvement, things may actually appear to be fate but in reality be engineered happenings. Free will on the other hand is not engineered. It relates to the concept of having full authority over ones aspirations and ultimate direction. The key there is ultimate. The gods can make up the plan and choose the path, but the people had to walk it. Therefore, fate and free will are not mutually exclusive and they both occur reciprocally throughout The Odyssey. In The Odyssey life is ones own responsibility; instead of leaving all things up to fate, the characters had a significant influence upon their own existence.

In The Odyssey the gods are responsible for controlling many aspects of where the story goes, but the people still have a chose of their own destiny. The gods in The Odyssey are who held Odysseus captive for over eight years on Calypso' Isle. They were responsible for his capture in the first place and then refused to let him go for almost a decade. When they finally decided he should be allowed to find his way home they made it known to his captor Calypso. However Odysseus still had to choose to leave. Calypso tried to keep him by offering immortality. You would stay here, and guard this house, and be immortal (Homer 67). Odysseus could have stayed but he chose to go. Some say that the gods knew Odysseus would not stay and that is why they decided to let him go. However, knowledge of an act doesnt take away the fact that Odysseus chose himself. The gods took much of his life away and Odysseus had more reason than anyone to give up and say to himself, This is my fate. Just as Ann, a critic of The Odyssey says, Blaming the gods for your faults doesnt always work, though. Theres a difference between having a fate and accepting your fate. The real heroes never give in. (Ann par. 6) That difference, between having fate and accepting it, is free will. Once they have controlled the fate of certain people the gods let the happenings take course. It is true that the gods interfere with the lives of the people, but that never takes away their free will. Zeus says it himself in the beginning of The Odyssey while talking to the other gods upon Olympus during the divine council, My word how mortals take the gods to task! All their afflictions come from us, we hear. And what of their own failings? (Homer 10) This statement by Zeus shows that the people are indeed responsible for themselves and have the ability to make their own choices. Regarding the same verse Torrey stated, This makes it seem that while men dont take responsibility in the Odyssey, the gods say they should... (Philemon, par. 1). Zeus also gives us another good example in that same speech. Here he questions Aigìsthos of taking his advice. We gods had warned him, send down Hermes, our most observant courier, to say .... Friendly advice-but would Aigìsthos take it? (Homer 10). The fact that Zeus sent down a messenger and questioned Aigìsthos taking the advice means that Aigìsthos had the choice to take it. Otherwise it wouldnt have even been a question because Zeus wouldnt have give Aigìsthos any options.

In some areas it is pertinent that the gods interfere. For example, Athena went to Ithaca and advised Odysseuss son to call an assembly. The purpose of the assembly was supposed to be to gather community support in opposing Penelopes suitors. Penelope had waited a long time for her husband Odysseus to come home and in the end she gave up and began allowing suitors to come around. Just as Odysseus was finding his way home she was seeing others and Athena thought a community effort to keep the men away was in order. Here again is a prime example of the gods important role in the development of the story. Without the interference of Athena the suitors may have moved more quickly than they did. In addition to that, the gods worked hard at getting Odysseus home as quickly as possible. We can say that the gods interfered because they wanted a certain outcome and that is very true. However helping situations along doesnt insure the outcome, it just makes it more likely. The gods wanting a certain result is a different matter from free will. It is important to distinguish the two.

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In the Odyssey both free will and fate occur. As we study what the true meaning of free will is we can be surer of the representation of it by The Odyssey. Many times throughout the story there were choices made that affected the outcome. In one instance we can observe the suitors on Ithaca. They behaved in an atrocious manner and chose poorly throughout the whole story. The gods, who might have interfered and changed the course of history by affecting the choices the suitors made, could foresee where their choices would lead them. Instead the gods chose to sit back and allow the people to make the choices they were going to make. Those choices caused consequences and reactions that the suitors could not get out of. Athena said to Odysseus, Yes, try the suitors. You may collect a few more loaves, and learn who are the decent lads, and who are vicious- although not one can be excused from death! (Homer 4) This was the fate of the suitors brought on by the gods because of the choices that the suitors had made. This is the way of free will and it represents the actions that were allowed in the myth. The Odyssey represents free will in that it gave choices. Choices were given to the gods but more importantly the people made their own choices. The choice Odysseus made to disguise himself instead of go straight home and tell his wife he was back. The choice his wife made to wait for eight years and then made the decisions remarry. All of these choices that were made by those involved in the myth are evidence of free will. The Odyssey, along with other Greek Mythology, gives us guidance in our lives today. We can turn to the stories and see morals and values that we want to emulate. Heroes were the finest kind in the myths. We can also see the values and morals we do not agree with and know we would stay away from those. The Odyssey presents us with the wonderful world of magic and gods while at the same time presenting us with a plain view of fate and guidance by showing us that the gods can interfere a little then sit back and let the choices fall where they may. Free will is exercised all throughout the Odyssey and free will gives the story the twists and turns that we have come to expect form all Greek Mythological classics.

Please note that this sample paper on FATE AND FREEWILL is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on FATE AND FREEWILL, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on FATE AND FREEWILL will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Demonstrate and consider the range and variety (or lack of it) in the work of several eighteenth century poets writing on man and nature. Consider approach and poetic means.

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Eighteenth century Britain was a time of great movement, in the literal sense as well as the metaphorical. In science, theories were being proved that contradicted religious belief. This brought about an increasing interest and wonder in the natural world, its simplicity and primal nature. In a way the eighteenth century can be seen as a waking of consciousness to the world and society but also as a demonstration of the immense ignorance of people's perception. The middle class was apparent as a large portion of the population who had leisure time. In this leisure time, many wished to be amused by reading poetry. In this sense, poetry came about in a very commissioned form. It was supplied on demand with the impression and meaning as desired in this period. Themes principally of nature and simplicity were adopted. However, because of the demand, the views conveyed in the poetry were often very false and artificial due to the poet never living the simple life or considering deeply what they wished to convey through their poetry. Nevertheless, despite this false view of nature and country life seen in much eighteenth century poetry, amongst it there are exceptions showing a truthful picture and a deeper meaning.

In Dyer's 'Grongar Hill', a typical awkwardly formed poem of this period, nature is seen arriving as two things. Firstly, as scenery, as in the landscapes one sees around us or a setting, something associated with the theatrical sense. People had a set view of what the idyllic country setting would look like and since the real country wasn't like this, they altered it to make it so. They built their own ruins and made their own lakes on their estates. A device called the 'Claud Glass' also was invented where to use it one had to turn their back on the image they wanted to see. Then by use of a mirror and tinted lens they were able to see the image as a picturesque Claud painting. This image of people turning their backs on nature to see something picturesque, essentially like a picture is a very good metaphor for what was happening in poetry such as Dyer's at this stage. This poem contains no subtlety. It has an obvious, insistent form with short line lengths and rhyming (or supposed to be rhyming) couplets. This form makes it very difficult for Dyer to expand on ideas. This also makes it seem very unnatural which is the opposite of the effect trying to be achieved. However, nature in this poem is also seen as a moral primer, something which one can learn little moral lessons from. It is very difficult reading it now, in the twenty-first century to even attempt to consider the obvious morals it is trying to put forward. The whole poem strikes us as hilarious. The single adjectives used to describe the trees are seen as very simplistic observations.

'The gloomy Pine, the Poplar blue,'

It seems that Dyer is coupling them with an adjective that will fit in with the awkward rhyming structure and line length. To a reader, it shows that his perception of nature is very base indeed. Another, noticeable feature about this poem and many of the period is the use of Classical references, here to 'Phillis'. These were popular names just to slip in to make it more in sync with what was desired. Classical names refer to Grecian times of great simplicity in the world, which was a popular notion in the eighteenth century. Personification is a much overused poetic means in poetry of this time. 'Grongar Hill' has limited use of it compared with other poetry such as Thomson's 'Winter'. However, it still seems rather tedious and at times inappropriate.

'Whose ragged Walls the Ivy creeps,

And with her Arms from falling keeps;'

This particular usage doesn't make sense. The plant 'Ivy' is a vine, which clings to walls and buildings. Dyer is implying that 'Ivy' would keep up the 'Walls' of the castle it is describing. However, in reality it would be the walls keeping the Ivy there. This shows again the meaning being twisted and restricted by this limited structure. It emphasises Dyer as being simply one of these middle class gentlemen approaching poetry as a means of filling his leisure time. The role he places himself in is also important to note. The first line-

'Below me Trees unnumber'd rise,'

He places himself above the scene giving him the sense of some godly figure, all seeing, all perceiving. However, this role he puts himself into makes it all the more amusing as his grasp on the natural world is so base.

Thomson's 'Winter' also contains a conscious placing of the poet, giving him a role to fill. However, instead of some god looking down on earth he portrays himself as a 'pensive' muse. This creates an equally unbelievable character as his thought process in the poem is no more sophisticated than Dyer's. As I implied before, Thomson has absurd use of personification. Almost every aspect of nature is personified. We are introduced to a 'pining Grove' a 'Breeze, that sobs' and various other equally odd characters. Thomson's use of personification though more well accomplished than Dyer's is still quite inappropriate as rarely could one ever identify a 'Grove' as 'pining'. Archaism is a feature used not just in Thomson's work but widely throughout the eighteenth century poets. Thomson here adopts words like ' perchance' which hasn't been in common use since Shakespeare's time. By using archaism, Thomson is dramatising it and by doing so is moving it as far away from colloquial speech as possible. At times it seems frustrating never calling something what it is. This is shown particularly ridiculously by replacing the simple word sheep with ' the bleating kind. Yet, at times his usage is thoroughly appropriate creating absolutely beautiful images. In this way his poem can be seen as far superior to Dyer's in all aspects apart from the artificiality contained through some of the ideas and archaisms. Thomson has adopted a far more versatile form- blank verse. In his Iambic pentameters he can simulate thought patterns and speech thus making it far more natural. Yet, one still sees the artificiality coming through with him using an exclamatory and public tone. This then moves it away from realism due to his use of exclamation in phrases such as ' Lo!' and 'But hark!' These essentially indicate emotional intensity however, the emotional charge here is not much showing greater falsity. The poetry in the eighteenth century seems to be in a language of its own not just with the archaism but with the formation of the sentences. The sentences often adopt a Greek or Latin construction which is the opposite of how it is in English.

' And all the various Family of Flowers

Their sunny robes resign.'

In normal English one would say 'resign their sunny robes'. This inversion of the sentences brings it even further away from natural speech. These lines are also a demonstration of Thomson's archaism using elaborate language to describe petals falling of a flower. Thomson as well as Dyer uses classical references such as 'Philomel'. As well as dropping it in for popularity of the whole Greek notion, this combined with the Greek inversion of sentences shows that this sort of poetry is meant for the intellectual elite, those who have been schooled in Latin and Greek. This further distances the poetry from the simplicity in nature it is trying to describe.

Thomas Gray's 'An Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard' also conveys this idealistic view of nature seen in the other poems. This poem is slightly different from the previous two as it introduces man into the poetry. One is presented with images of the simple farmer another idealistic notion of the middle classes. Gray hasn't managed to present a realistic picture of the farmer's life just like Thomson and Dyer couldn't present a realistic picture of nature. Everything is idealised. In particular, the description of his home life is very idealistic.

'For them no more the blazing Hearth shall burn,

Or busy Housewife ply her Evening Care

No Children run to lisp their Sire's Return

Or climb his knees the envied Kiss to share.'

Gray presents it as a clich of the country cottage complete with a 'blazing Hearth' and 'busy Housewife' and 'Children' to take care of his every need. The phrase 'Sire's Return' is particularly ridiculous as no plough-man's child in that time would ever refer to their father as 'Sire' a term associated with Lordship and noblemen. There would not be this much lordly worship of their father. The complete idealism here shows Gray not understanding at all what country life is like. Another example of this is in his description of the farmer setting off for work in the morning.

'How jocund did they drive their team afield!'

This is very unrealistic as no man joyfully sets off to work in the morning, particularly not an agricultural labourer who has a hard physical slog before him. However, in amongst Gray's misinterpretation he is getting across a social argument. At the end one can see Gray confronting his own death in the words he makes the 'hoary-headed Swain' say and the Epitaph. He is expressing feelings of disappointment in life and his prospects and essentially saying that in life man will not be fulfilled. This sort of pessimistic statement is not usual in eighteenth century poetry, which despite Gray's false image of the countryside does how some profound thought. In this sense, Gray's 'Elegy' is not really a nature poem. He never goes into detail about a certain aspect of observed nature instead, everything is generalised. It seems at times his language, though with a good rhythm, has unnecessary decoration.

'The breezy call of Incense-breathing Morn,'

This line presents a contradiction. 'Incense breathing' suggests something heavy and overpowering whereas 'breezy' implies something light and fresh. The juxtaposition of these opposites proove that Gray was not paying full attention to his meaning instead, he concentrated on the rhythm and flow that the words create. This poem in fact doesn't tell a reader much about the natural world at all. The Poet is very far from the scene and through his misunderstanding of subjects and language it is blatantly evident that he is an aristocrat who probably never even sat in a 'Country Churchyard' where he is supposed to be writing the poem from.

Collins' 'Ode to Evening' is similar in approach to Thomson's 'Winter'. He places himself as some sort of shepherd playing on his pipe of some sort to the evening. The image of the shepherd was another much idealised figure. In France at this time, Marie Annetoinette wife of Louis XVI, had her own little farm made inside the palace walls so she could dress up and play as shepherdess. This idea seems absurd as in reality the shepherd's life isn't picturesque or delightful at all, but this was the mind state that eighteenth century middle and upper class society had. The language here is again alien talking about his pipe as an 'Oaten Stop' a word probably not even used in earlier English. The line-

'Whose Numbers stealing thro' thy darkening Vale,'

is interesting due to the meaning of the word 'Numbers'. This can be interpreted as referring to the mathematical construction of poetry with very tight line lengths and such which also has to be observed in the composition of music with bars. This emphasises the link between poetry and music in not just the art form but also the way they were placed in eighteenth century society. Collins like all the poets uses personification making the evening into a modest, 'chaste' girl or 'Nymph' as he later refers to her. The Classical language of the word 'Nymph' presents the eternally artificial tone of the poem. This is particularly ironic as Collins is trying to write about a simple every day occurrence.

Collins' 'St Kilda' is different from the other poems as its subject matter is of a rock off the Hebrides in Scotland whereas all the others are about the English countryside. Here, nature is presented as virtuous and 'sincere'. The simplicity and rawness of this place is seen as all the more beautiful, untouched by the rest of the world. The main idea encompassed in this is that the closer to bare nature is seen as closer to virtue. This idea reflects a popular philosophy at this time that the world is something like a machine that one can learn to understand and appreciate. In 'St Kilda' Collins writes of men living in 'primal innocence'. This reflects the story of Adam and Eve in Eden in the simplicity of living and bliss. This idea comes from Rousseau's philosophy that the simpler one is the more virtuous one is.

' I realise that our existence is nothing but a succession of moments perceived

through the senses.'

This is describing Rousseau's epiphany, a realisation of something through intense emotion. This reflects the new attitude that I feel therefore I am, opposed to the earlier attitude of I think therefore I am. This brings about the debate between sense and sensibility in the arts. Henry MacKenzie wrote 'The Man of Feeling', an overly emotional novel of a man reduced to tears at everything he sees. However this is contrasted harshly with Jane Austen's novels where she, a sensible women, makes a mockery of this concept. Nevertheless, the new movement of opinion of simplicity being virtuous led to an increasing public interest in anything 'primal'. At this time the Pacific islands where being discovered. Intelligent men took part in discovery expeditions and saw the paradise of sun, sea and sands with the natives there in their nudity as a confirmation of Rousseau's idea of simplicity being good and virtuous. The increasing popularity in this idea entered greatly into poetry like Collins 'St Kilda'. Thomas Gray wrote when crossing ice-capped mountains-

'Not a torrent, not a precipice- but is pregnant with religion ands poetry.'

In this statement he is identifying nature as being holy and in itself effectively poetry. The word 'pregnant' here is associated with birth when man is at his most simple reinforcing this idea. This shift of opinion of natural wonders like mountains being seen as a way of being closer to God and simplicity from just a nuisance for travelling or places where ignorant beings lived. Mountains are now identified as being sublime. This brought an increasing interest in the 'noble savage' and any writings apparently by them were in great demand. This led the way for immense fraud. Chatterton produced poetry, which he claimed to have been written by the middle age monk, Rowley. This is one example of this type of fraud taking place and Chatterton was exposed. He died very young, in a sense for his art, which made him a tragic figure of his day to other young poets. This incident changed the image of poetry from being simply a gentleman's occupation into more of an art form. Ballads, which hadn't been in use as a poetic form for centuries, suddenly became popular again, as they were the works of simple men told originally by wandering singers. Hence, 'bard' became a respectable word for a poet, which before had always been associated with gypsies, outcasts of society.

Thomas Warton's 'The Enthusiast' was one such ballad. Even from the title one is presented by the ideas at this time. In the eighteenth century the meaning of the word 'enthusiast' was much stronger than its twenty-first century meaning. It essentially implied someone almost possessed by the Holy Spirit. In this context of nature is emphasises the idea nature being something holy. In the poem he claims he want to get away from the world of art and artifice into the simplicity of nature which is moral. This contains an irony as he seeks complete simplicity yet in doing so he uses the most elaborate and artificially poetic language possible. In these lines he expresses his attitude against all man created things-

'Rich in her weeping Country's Spoils Versailles

May boast a thousand Fountains, that can cast

The tortur'd Waters to the distant Heav'ns;

Yet let me choose some Pine-topt Precipice'

These lines would've been taken well as it contains some anti-French opinion, which was popular due to the war. It states that France has been plundered for the wealth of the Palace of Versailles. There is an implication that this wouldn't happen in Britain. The image of the waters going to the heavens is described as 'tortur'd', something painfully against nature. He claims he would prefer the 'Pine-topt Precipice' which we would call a waterfall. His archaism is thoroughly ridiculous. Even out of poetry he can't stop himself using elaborate artificial language-

'The Sublime and the Pathetic- are the two nerves of genuine poesy.'

The word 'poesy' isn't even an archaism as it was never a commonly used word for poetry. The word is more academic, nearer the Greek root, which makes it far more artificial. This is particularly effective when juxtaposed to the word 'genuine' as in using this elaborate language he is certainly not being genuine. It is very clear to see in this quotation the capitalised abstracts- 'Sublime', 'Pathetic'. Throughout all the poetry this technique has been used. It adds to this theme of artificiality with the poets trying to put emphasis on certain words. Instead of doing this it just makes it sound more false. 'Prospect' in the second stanza of 'The Enthusiast' is given such a capital. This is an elaborate word for view reinforcing the idea of nature as an art form, something picturesque and thoroughly idealised in all this poetry. 'Cotts' is an archaism of cottages, linking them here to something cosy and homely where essentially life in these cottages would be far from pleasant.

However, amongst this artificiality there are poets who depict the truth in their poetry, such as Crabbe in his poem 'The Pauper's Funeral'. The tone from the start is far bleaker than in any of the other poems. He describes the parish being 'glad' that they have to pay a 'fugal fee' for this pauper as this is the last contribution to his welfare they will have to make and also one less pauper to support through life. The description of the children originally seems to be quite sombre and melancholy as they seem to be originally paying their respects to this old friend. However, in the lines-

'While bending low, their eager eyes explore

The mingled relics of the parish poor'

It describes the reality. It is not a picturesque composed image of a group of children holding hands realising the death of this pauper. Instead, it shows them going to see the grave as some form of morbid entertainment. 'Mingled relics' describing the grave, exposes the truth of what a pauper's grave actually is- an open pit with all the long-dead poor decaying right beside the newly dead. This is a far more sinister image than any of the other poems chose to depict and through this one can see the reality of what a 'Pauper's Funeral' would actually involve.

The poetry of the eighteenth century seems much preoccupied with the topic of man and nature and appreciating the simplicity of this nature, which is seen as virtuous. However, due to preconceptions of what nature should be and the idea of it being picturesque leads to much artificiality in the poetry. This is not just through the descriptions of what it chooses to present but also in the artificial use of archaism, inverted sentences, insincere exclamation and capitalised abstracts. Many poets seemed to decorate their poetry with beautiful sounding language but through this getting their meaning confused. However, amongst this artificiality there are moments of truth and thought such as in Crabbe's 'The Pauper's Funeral' and the profound idea in Gray's 'Elegy'. This variation shows that the eighteenth century was not an era of ignorance and that many poets were simply writing to agree with the popular idea of 'primal innocence', not thinking for themselves. However through this, we, looking back from the twenty-first century, can understand the reasons behind the falsity and confront reality in the truth.

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