Describe the transition and methods used to turn a Delain League into an Athenian Empire

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"The Delian League had long possessed the trappings of an empire, but at this point it clearly became an empire, or, to use the Greek term, an arche. In the official documents we even find a reference to the 'Athenians and those over whom they rule' The peace treaty with Sparta reflects this, too-it speaks not of a military alliance against Persia but two Greek power centres facing each other. Relations within the Delian league can be deduced from the speeches Thucydides included in his history and also from a number of inscriptions, including tribute lists and various treaties. In the speeches, what is most striking is the tyrannical power Athens exercised over its allies, something Pericles and other orators pointed at with pride. They assert that the foundations of this power were laid when Athens, at the request of its allies, assumed leadership in the war against Persia. The Athenians had kept the alliance alive for three reasons, the same three that motivate most powerful men- honour, wealth and fear. The Athenians, like the Spartans, had only one choice, either to rule by might or to put their own position in Jeopardy". (Meier, C. Athens, p. 58)

The move from the Delian League into the Athenian Empire was due to various methods employed by the Athenians. Although there is no evidence to suggest that this was an Athenian long-term plan, the potential to do so was there from the beginning. Athens use of garrisons, oaths and cleruchs and the ever-growing Athenian navy, was enough to protect Athens from any attack. Along with the Conquest of Boeotia and Aegina cemented this fear of Athenian aggression. The transfer of the treasury to Athens and subject states paying tribute was enough to make Athens a force not be reckoned with. These methods to 'harness' the Greek city states would come at a cost, yet would produce one of the greatest of its time the Athenian Empire.

In some of the states Athens found it necessary to install military garrisons. There were a number of important reasons for this. In most Greek states there were political rivalries between Democrats and the few Oligarchs. Also to protect the majority of citizens who remained loyal to Athens. They also served a political purpose. They were there to protect Athenian officials who were sent out to install democratic governments or at least ones favourable to Athens. When peace was made with Persia the garrisons remained to protect Athens. The use of Oaths of loyalty and legal interference were also valuable to Athens success in these city-states.

"The Chalcidians took the following oath; I will not revoelt from the Athenians by any device or contrivance whatsoever, and neither by word nor deed will I obey anyone who had rebelled…If anyone does I will inform the Athenians… whosoever shall not swear shall be deprived citizenship and his property confiscated and the tenth part of his property shall be devoted to Olympian Zeus…..".

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A Cleruchy was a settlement of Athenian citizens on the territory of others. Cleruchies differed from earlier Greek colonies as they were not independent settlements but still apart of Athens. Their main purpose was to act as 'watch dogs' for Athens' interests and to maintain control over her empire by implanting among its allies a healthy fear of rebellion. Although the numbers of Cleruchies set up were under the leadership of Pericles, the Athenian statesman, it was the first time that they had been set up in allied territory.

" Besides this he sent 1000 cleruchs to the Chersonese, 500 to Naxos, half this number to Andros…In this way he lightened the city of an idle mob, who were trouble makers because they had leisure, and relieved the poverty of people, and by sending out settlers to live alongside the allies installed both fear and a garrison to prevent their rebellion". (Plutarch Perikles 11.4-6)

Athens was well known for its incredible navy. Since the Delian League was made up of almost entirely islands and coastal cities it could be easily controlled by Athens. After the defeat of the Aegina, Athens had the naval power to face the combined strength of all fleets is the Aegean.

The knowledge that Athenian triremes could appear in the harbour at any time was a great deterrent in anti-Athenian elements. Strong walls could have neutralised the power of the Athenian navy but in the signing of the Delian League most of these walls were dismantled. Yet if Athenian fleets were to block their harbours how could the states trade with other states?

The Athenian navy in peacetime acted as patrolling force, which gave confidence to Athens friends, and kept the pirates away.

After this there occurred the battles on land and sea at the Eurymedon river in Pamphylia, in which the Athenians and their allies fought against the Persians, and the Athenians were victorious in both on the same day under the command of Kimon son of Miltiades, they captured and destroyed some two hundred triremes, the whole Phoenician fleet". (Thuydides 1.100.1)

In 44-454 B.C. Athens under the influence of Pericles, the allies were not only expected to support but to engage in acts of aggression on other Greek states. This kept all states under a firm Athenian grip. In 457B.C Athens used the Delian League to help in the defeat of Aegina who was then forced to join the league. This gave Athens not only another state paying a tribute to them but also gave them supreme and unmatched naval control in the Aegean. Also in the battle of Tanagra in Boeotia, Athenians were joined by League troops in the defeat of the Peloponnesians. Not only did these incidents cause fear and resentment amongst many of the members of the league but also they now realised that they were governed by Athenian policies, no longer the league policies.

After this the Aeginetans surrendered to the Athenians, which involved destroying their walls and handing over their ships and agreeing to pay tribute for the future". (Thucydides Account (BK 1. 107.1-108.5)

In 454 B.C. the Athenians had the excuse they needed to transfer the Delian League funds from the Island of Delos, where it had been since 477 B.C., all because of a possible Phoenician raid. This was a major step in the development of the league to an Athenian Empire. Before this movement was controlled by Council of Allies but now it was apart of the Athenian treasury. From here on the Athenians supervised the annual income and assessed the amount of tribute that was due form each state.

The Athenians used the fact that the league treasury had been moved to Athens, and their power over other states to take military action against one another, to make all of the league members, by this time now they were known as "the cities which the Athenians control". To pay a tribute to them, this also included the states, which were defeated by the Athenians using League armies. This would help the Athenians to expand their navy and army, which would eventually expand their sphere of influence within the Aegean and the surrounding territory, which will eventually lead to more tribute paying states.

Shortly afterwards Aegina surrendered, and was forced to destroy her fortifications to hand over her fleet, and agree to pay tribute in the future". (Thucydides Account (BK 1.5-115)

Athens with complete control over the League army and navy, both of which were included into the Athenian forces had complete and utter control of the member states. With this power, the fear of military action if they didn't abide by Athens' Decree's, Athens was able to introduce certain decrees, which the city-states had to abide by or face the consequences. In 447 B.C. the Athenians passed the Cleinias Decree informing the cities of the league for their decision to continue demanding contributions and outlining details of their collection. Those who refused would have to go to Athens to plead their case. Athens then issued a coinage Decree in or around 466 B.C. This enforced the use of Athenian weights, measures and coinage throughout the area of her control. All currencies were to be melted down and the mints closed.

" Around the same time Clearchus proposed the 'Coinage Decree', which closed down all allied mints and imposed Athenian silver coinage, weights and measures on all of the allies. The economic benefits of this decree are not easy to ascertain, but the language is which it is couched is blatantly imperialistic." (Buckley, T. Aspects Of Greek History)

The subjection of the city states to the Athenians, came about by the tearing down of city walls in 'Athenian controlled area' and the contribution of city states' land and naval forces, meant that these city states became more and more inexperienced in and ill-prepared for war, therefore they began to rely on Athens for their protection.

" The alliance between us and the Athenians dates from the end of the Persian War. But the object of the alliance was the liberation of the Hellenes from the Persians, not the subjugation of the Hellenes to the Athenians. So long as the Athenians in their leadership respect our independence we follow them with enthusiasm. But when we saw that they were becoming less and less antagonistic to Persia and more and more interested in enslaving their own allies, then we became frightened". (Thucydides, .10)

The transition form League to Empire was definitely not accidental, but a deliberate movement by the Athenians to gain more power in the Aegean, though they became prosperous through much trade and tribute payed by various states, Athens was constantly at war with either Persia, Phoenicians or the Spartans, this was mainly due to its ever aggressive expansionistic nature. Though the methods used by the Athenians to bring the various Greek city-states under a single rule were very effective and eventually brought about the Athenian Empire.

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Traditional vs e business - sales and payments

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4.4 ASSIGNMENT ONE -PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT

Day of learning -Driving a car in New Zealand

All learning situations have the potential to affect capability. In many ways capability is valuable than specific skills learned.

Massey Study Guide-114.4. Human Resource Development (00p.17)

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On 7 Oct.00 I immigrated to New Zealand from China. At first I found a flat in Mt. Roskill in Auckland and studied certificate in business at AUT, which is situated in city. Because it is expensive and hard to park a car in city, so it is no use for me to buy a car. It is very convenient to take a bus to university. Having completed semester 1 in 00, I transferred to Massey University to study diploma in business studies. Massey University is situated in north shore of Auckland where it is inconvenient to commute by bus, so I decided rent a room in north shore and then buy a car.

It is lucky that I rent a single room, which is situated in 1-70 Beach haven road, Beach haven in north shore. My landlord Linda is kind, warm-hearted Chinese woman. her family have been here many years and she is now studying BACC in Massey. She everyday drives her car to Massey, having got full driving licence of New Zealand for two years.

I have a driving licence in China, but a long time I have not driven a car. There are great differences about driving between in China and in New Zealand. The structure of a car and road driving codes are different. In China the steering wheel in a car is at left, all driver must keep on the right-hand side of the road when driving, but in New Zealand all these everything are opposite the steering wheel is at right and you must

Drive on left-hand side of the road.

I just bought a second-hand car, which is Honda Civic, produced in 10. At the beginning I found it difficult to decide what should I select to learn for 114.4

Assignment one day of learning. But in fact I felt the very anxious thing for me is to drive a car easily and safely. I have not done any part-time job since I immigrated to New Zealand. Linda and my other friends with same background with me have done part-time job for a long time. Now I have no car, cant go to do part -time job, only support myself on student loan. I would like to do part-time job just like Linda. Because doing part-time job not only makes money to support myself, but also

Make me familiar with local society life and practise my spoken English. So due to many reasons, driving a car soon is my most important thing now.

Since I arrived in Auckland, I have not driven a car. Although I have passed the theory test about the official road codes for car drivers and answered all 5 questions correctly. I am still nervous when I really want to drive a car in New Zealand.

I just bought a car and moved to north shore not long, everything is nearly strange, not familiar with road here. But now I must drive a car safely to make a living and go to university. Although there are still great challenges to me.

Another reasons are that I must pass the full licence practical road test by 7 Oct. 00.

Because I have been here 1 year by then, otherwise my Chinese driving licence would expire. I have only to pass restricted driving licence. Now I may get a full driving licence if I can pass the practical road test.

So there is an answer to my problem, my day of learning was decided-I would to learn to drive a car soon.

Objectives

The objectives behind the day of learning are to review all driving skills and become a safe and skilled driver in New Zealand that will

Go to Massey university to take my course everyday

Go to do some part-time job suitable for me to support myself, feel being independence and contact more about local life society and widen my insight.

Prepare to pass my full licence practical test of New Zealand by 7 Oct. 00.

Goal

My goal is to learn to drive a car in Auckland to a standard, which at first safely drive to and from university, the venue where I would do part time job, supermarket and other life necessary place and eventually pass the full driving licence of New Zealand.

Coach

I asked my landlord Linda to coach me, because she is a kind, warm-hearted quiet woman, and have got a full driving licence of New Zealand, Before coaching me she wanted to know what was required of her, so we reviewed the notes pertaining to partnership coaching together to make sure we both knew well on what was involved, and she then told me she would glad to help.

PLANNING THE DAY OF LEARNING

It was first thing that I should familiar with the car just bought from car fair.

Firstly I must check the car exterior body of the car, tyres including the spare, wheel nuts, lights and windscreen. Under the bonnet check oil, water, windscreen washer bottle, and battery and automatic transmission fluid. Inside the car to check tools, hand brake, gear lever, warrant of fitness and licence label, horn, windscreen wipers, safety belt, steering, footbrake to look for that they are in good working order.

When I have seated in my car, there are some important checks and actions I should carry out before I move off to ensure a safe and hassle-free journey.

Adjust the seat and steering wheel, the mirrors, check all doors are shut but unlocked, check all controls (egg heater, demister, indicators, wipers etc) to make sure they are in the correct position. Check the safety belt and check that your car has enough fuel for my journey.

Secondly I should adapt to New Zealands right steering wheel and road codes of driving on the left-hand side of the road. To familiar the road on the map. Review all kinds of driving skills moving off, moving off uphill, moving off downhill, stopping, making all emergency stop, practise in nearby quiet street motorway driving, passing, reversing and three-point turns, parallel parking.

Thirdly I follow the map to drive to Massey University. Linda took me to Massey by her car a lot of times. I may remember the route. This time I would like she sit in my

Car to look if I can drive her to Massey. Then I have to practise to drive back to our house.

Lastly I would drive to Glen field shopping mall and Northport shopping mall.

The log of the day learning

REFLECTION AND LEARNING

I think my day of learning was well balanced. The preparation and planning of the day of learning is very necessary. In the day of learning I review some old driving skills but important I learned many new skills such as

1.Learn to check under the bonnet.

Although I can drive a car but I have never check under the bonnet, because once there is problem with my car, I used to ask for mechanic for checking and dont need to pay too much. But in New Zealand if you want to ask mechanic for repairing, you must pay too much for a small problem. So youd better do your best to do it yourself. It is very important you know everything of your car.

. Learn to drive on the left-hand side of road, steering a car in right chair.

On these aspects there are bigger difference. I used to steer the car in the left chair and drive on the right-hand side of road. But in New Zealand all these are opposite. I have to change my old habit to adjust to new regulation. At the beginning I found it difficult. These bring me challenges, which at the same time give me pressure. Someone maybe think these small things, but this thing reminds me of other thing. I feel in fact change your old habit is not easy which need you pay the price and you must have courage. Especially for those who have had steady work and comfortable life in China, just immigrated to New Zealand and met many new unexpected life problems.

I knew I must challenge myself to take my courage to develop my potential, which I maybe have yet known.

.Staying calm is very important.

Since I came to New Zealand, I have not driven a car. It has been about nine months. I just bought the car, not completely familiar with everything of it, and I have not been familiar with north shore roads, pulsing there are many difference about driving between China and NZ. I still felt nervous to drive a car in New Zealand firstly. After a few hours of practising in Quiet Street, I found out the some feeling. I started to be a little bit confidence, which make me continue on to complete my day of learning.

4.The ability of checking the route in map is very important, especially for those who just been New Zealand from overseas. If you check map very familiarly, you cannot be lost in anywhere in New Zealand. The distribution of roads in New Zealand is different from in China; it is very similar between roads in New Zealand. You often drive wrong routes. So you must take map with you everyday and everywhere.

5. Dont forget to fasten my seatbelt when driving.

It is different from in China, at the beginning I am not used to it, always forget about it. So I must beware about it carefully.

6.The day of learning not only developed my capability in driving a car in New Zealand, but also gives me confidence in living in New Zealand independently.

7.There are great potential in ourselves, only we have no chance to find them out. So we should challenge ourselves, conquer our fear to strange things. An old saying goes like this yourself is your biggest enemy. you never know what you can do till you try.

To drive my own car in New Zealand demonstrated that I can live in New Zealand independently, this bring me a great confidence. I no longer always to ask others helps.

8. I like the feeling of doing something myself, when I dont know how to continue on, I ask for someones help.

I dont like being told to do something. Id like to try sth myself. Sometime I have to pay the price for it in doing so, such as wasting a lot of time and money. This is disadvantages. But sometime doing so can develop my abilities. I do like to challenge myself. When you conquer yourself, you cant express your happiness in language. That stands for your capability.

The day of learning made me realize that I am always lazy and dont want to change. But once there are pressure on me because of some reasons, my capability of coping with change is strong. My potential cant display until it is be pressed. This is my new find.

After completing this assignment, I will change my old concept , endeavour to

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Nichomachean ethics

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Book V

Within the pages of , "The Nichomachean Ethics," Aristotle suggests that there are

very specific characteristics a society must have in order to survive. These characteristics

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are really the eleven moral and intellectual virtues that Aristotle describes within his book.

Of these virtues it can be said that all are very important, however, it can also be said that

the virtue of Justice is the most significant of all. In Book V of the Ethics, Aristotle goes

into a very in depth discussion of Justice and all of its aspects. In order to support this

claim of Justice's supremacy, I will first show the very significance of Justice to Aristotle's

arguments of society and regime success and where it ties in. Next I will show exactly

what questions Justice raises with Aristotle in his book. Thirdly, I will attempt to show

how these questions are answered or are attempted to be answered in Book V.

Aristotle is quick to point out in Book 5 that justice is always present. He says,

"For justice exists only between men whose mutual relations are governed by law; and law

exists for men between whom there is injustice; for legal justice is the discrimination of the

just and unjust."1 What he is saying here is that whenever there is unjust action between

people, there must still be justice present. Reason being is that the differentiation could not

be made between just and unjust actions if there was no sense of justice at all. The law that

a regime must have in order to survive has to be based upon a sense of justice, the

understanding of the difference between just and unjust. With this in mind, it would then

next be important to see that a place of total injustice simply could not exist. Imagine a

regime where anarchy was rampant and there appeared to be nothing but mistrust,

misdeeds and misdirection. Even in a land such as this there would have to be some

justice. Whoever would be in charge would have to have a certain amount of justice in

that they would have to entrust certain powers to a police or military personnel group. So

even those that plan nothing but terror must have even limited justice working within that

system. I use this example to illustrate why the virtue of justice is so significant. It does so

by showing that no matter what type of regime is in place, justice exists, therefore it must

be understood as it will always be present.

As was stated briefly above, the law that governs over people and their lives must

be derived from justice. As a form of justice, Aristotle also lines how the law must be

constructed for people to follow it in order to create a final sense of happiness. "And the

law bids us do both the acts of a brave man..., and those of a temperate men..., and those

of a good-tempered man..., and similarly with regard to the other virtues and forms of

wickedness, commanding some acts and forbidding others; and the rightly framed law

does this rightly, and the hastily conceived one less well. Aristotle says that the law,

although derived from justice, must still be created in a manner that will be integral in

maximizing the happiness of citizens. The law must instruct citizens to follow the other

virtues suggested by Aristotle and only that will lead to a system of law that will be

efficient in creating a stable regime. So with justice being the primary source of law and

with law suggesting that citizens following the other virtues, it would seem as though

justice is the tie that binds them all together. And without law, it is impossible to keep a

regime stable. That is why I would say that justice is key to Aristotle's arguments of

regime success and citizen happiness.

As big on justice as Aristotle is, he still raises some very serious questions as to it's

workability. On of these questions is that of what is right or equitable versus what is just.

For Aristotle, it does indeed seem as though what is equitable and what is just are indeed

very similar. "For on examination, they appear to be neither absolutely the same nor

generically different; and while we sometimes praise what is equitable and the equitable

man..." So for Aristotle they seem on the surface to be similar. However it is the fact that

they are still different that makes Aristotle start to raise some questions. "...at other times,

when we reason it out, it seems strange if the equitable, being something different from the

just, is yet praiseworthy; for either the just or the equitable is not good, if they are

different; if both are good, they are the same."4 So this is where he asks his question, if

what is equitable and what is just are different, then how can they both possible be

correct?

Thankfully, Aristotle provides the answer to that very question soon after. He first

says that, "What creates the problem is that the equitable is just, but not the legally just but

a correction of legal justice."5 So although equity is just in a sense, it does not conform to

the law standards of what just is defined as sometimes, and that is where the problem

really lies. An example of this would look much like the case where one man pokes out

another man's eye. The equitable thing to do would be to let the one eye man do the same

to his assailant. However the legal just says this is not correct. If this case were to go to

court, the judge would not say to poke the assailant's eye, he/she would instead suggest

some form of compensation. So here is where the debate begins. Aristotle goes on to say

that a problem with justice is that justice tries to be so absolute and that unfortunately it

cannot correct for that aspect of its existence.

However he also says that it is not the law or the legislators fault for this conflict.

"The reason is that all law is universal but about some things it is not possible to make a

universal statement which shall be correct. In those cases, then, in which it is necessary to

speak universally, but not possible to do so correctly, the law takes the usual case, though

it is not ignorant of the possibility of error. And it is none the less correct; for the error is

not in the law nor in the legislator but in the nature of the thing, since the matter of

practical affairs is of this kind from the start...Hence the equitable is just, and better than

one kind of justice - not better than absolute justice, but better than the error that arises

from the absoluteness of the statement."6 So there is the answer to Aristotle's question, it

is not any fault of equity or justice, it is instead just the way things are. Aristotle says that

equity is not the same as justice, instead, it is just a different kind of justice. No better than

absolute justice, just modified to help in situations where absolute justice has no correct

answer. That in itself he says is the nature of equity, to solve for what justice cannot.

Another question raised by Aristotle in Book V, is the question of can man treat

himself unjustly? It is apparent that one man can be unjust to another man, but Aristotle

asks if a man can truly be unjust to himself. Or more precisely he argues is it just to

commit suicide. To begin his argument of this, Aristotle first states that, "...the law does

not expressly permit suicide, and what it does not expressly permit it forbids."7 So

Aristotle lays it out that because the law does not say suicide is acceptable, it is then

deemed unacceptable. Later, Aristotle claims that when a person commits murder, they

are voluntary acting unjustly upon another without their permission and that is unjust.

"Again, when a man in violation of the law harms another...voluntarily, he acts unjustly,

and a voluntary agent is one who knows both the person he is affecting by his action and

the instrument he is using; and he who through anger voluntarily stabs himself does this

contrary to the right to life rule, and this the law does not allow; therefore he is acting

unjustly."8 So the question with suicide then becomes, can a person treat themselves

unjustly? Aristotle says that this instance is very unique in that you cannot commit

adultery with your own wife, and you cannot break into property that is your own so how

then can suicide be an unjust act upon ones self. He says that although it may not be the

man that suffers, there is something that suffers a loss. "But towards whom? Surely

towards the state, not towards himself. For he suffers voluntarily, but no one is voluntarily

treated unjustly. This is the reason why the state punishes; a certain loss of civil rights

attaches to the man who destroys himself, on the ground that he is treating the state

unjustly." So Aristotle says that although the man doesn't suffer, the state does. How can

it be that the state suffers? With an event such as this, the state does indeed suffer but in a

different way as would a person. The state now loses first and foremost a working hand in

the economy. A piece of he fabric of society who can work and buy goods can now no

longer help the society. Also, the loss of this person might affect other members of society

who in turn would be less motivated to work and less likely to buy goods. So as Aristotle

points out, the state does indeed suffer. So in order to help try and avoid this, the state

says it will punish those who commit this crime.

So For Aristotle, the question then becomes, "Can a man be voluntarily treated

unjustly?"10 For Aristotle, there is never a time when being unjustly treated is permissible.

Being unjustly treated for him means that someone is losing and someone else is gaining in

a manner that is not in line with the moral virtues. However, Aristotle does begin to

explain how it is that suicide could be permissible by saying that the situation is between a

man and certain parts of himself not the whole being as with dealing with another man.

That for Aristotle is the difference. "Metaphorically and in virtue of a certain resemblance

there is a justice, not indeed between a man and himself, but between certain parts of

him;...For these are the ratios in which the part of the soul that has a rational principle

stands to the irrational part; and it is with a view to these parts that people also think a

man can be unjust to himself, viz. because these parts are liable to suffer something

contrary to their respective desires; there is therefore thought to be a mutual justice

between them as ruler and ruled."11 So Aristotle says, a man can be unjust to himself in

that he has a rule over his parts and has the right to make unjust actions against them. For

a man has guidance over his parts, body and soul and if he decides willingly that they

should suffer, then in the end it is allowable to do so.

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The music within itself

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The main purpose of the paper is to investigate and present the relationship

between the mind, music, and human behavior. For this purpose, research is

presented on previous works and studies that link music with the mind. Based on

this research, music increases neurotransmitter levels. Soft or mellow music has

Cheap University Papers on The music within itself

a tendency to promote tranquillity, while music with tempo sometimes distracts.

Human memories can be cued by music, and music can promote improved learning.

The brain is a two and a quarter pound piece of living organic tissue that

controls the human nervous system. Music is a collection of sound waves that

propagate through the air, and has varying frequencies and tones following a

discernible order. Yet we all recognize the significance of the brain beyond its

physical function. Our minds are the essence of what we are. The brain

enigmatically stores memories, and lets people experience such things as emotion,

sensations, and thoughts. In the same sense, music is more than just a

collection of vibrations. This leads to the question of how does music affect

the mind, and in addition, how does music affect human behavior? The reader

might ask why such a question should be relevant. If more is known about the

psychological and neurophysiological effects of music on the human mind, then

the possibilities of this knowledge are unbounded. Music can be used to treat

social and behavioral problems in people with disabilities. The use of music in

the classroom might enhance or weaken a students work characteristics.

Therefore, whether the influence of music is positive or negative, much needs to

be explored about the link between the mind and music.

Physiologically, the brain receives information about sound waves from the ear

through the auditory nerve. This information is then processed by the brain and

analyzed for the juxtaposition of melody and rhythm. The mixture of melody and

rhythm is what we commonly refer to as music. However, our minds interpret this

auditory information as more than just sound signals; somehow, we are able to

differentiate between certain types of music, and develop preferences for these

different types. Yet, what are the ways in which the effects of music manifest

themselves?

First, there are particular biochemical responses in the human body to music.

Research shows that college students, when listening to music, have more

galvanic skin response peaks, as opposed to when they were not listening to

music. This research also indicates a significant decrease of norepinephrine

levels in students while they listen to preferred music. Norepinephrine is a

neurotransmitter that arbitrates chemical communication in the sympathetic

nervous system of the human body. The release of this neurotransmitter, as a

consequence of a function of the brain, results in an increased heart rate and

heightened blood pressure. Therefore, the decrease of norepinephrine in these

college students results in a more relaxed state. This could suggest that

favored or pleasant music somehow affects the mind, resulting in the relaxing of

the body. Another research project, undertaken at the Tokyo Institute of

Psychiatry, focuses on the effects of music on the mind using

electroencephalograms (EEG). An electroencephalograph is a medical instrument

that is capable of showing the electrical activity of the brain by measuring

electrical potentials on the scalp. In this experiment, volunteers were exposed

to silence, music, white noise (simulated hiss), and then silence. The result of

this experiment coincides with the previous findings. The volunteers all

reported feeling a calming sensation. However, the researches did not attribute

the lowered tension to reduced neurotransmitter levels. While listening to music,

many of the subjects reported that they felt pleasantly relaxed or comfortable…

Music may evoke more organized mental activities which result in subjectively

comfortable feelings. The white noise in the experiment produced an even

greater effect; the volunteers were so relaxed that many felt drowsy and

soporific. This sleepy effect can be explained by the monotonous characteristics

of white noise, in contrast to the variations in tone and melody of normal music.

Furthermore, the researchers found, based on the EEGs, that while listening to

music, the volunteers maintained a higher consciousness than when they were

exposed to silence or white noise. What this experiment shows is that there is a

change in the mental state of people while listening to music; that is, music

has certain psychophysiological effects on humans.

Along with these psychophysiological effects, music has an impact on memory as

well. In one experiment, words were presented to test subjects, while either

classical music, jazz music, or no music played in the background. When the test

subjects were asked to repeat the words a few days later, either the same music

or a different background was present. The researcher noticed a facilitative

effect of providing the same [musical] context. Similar research has been done

on CDM. CDM stands for context-dependent memory, which is the principle that

changing the context or environment in which material was originally learned

causes some of that material to be forgotten. A group of scientists tested

college undergraduates by asking the students to rate the pleasantness of a

sequence of words, while they listened to a certain type of music. Afterwards,

they were asked to recall these words. The results indicate that the students

were able to recall the sequence more successfully if the same musical piece was

playing. Furthermore, the researchers found that if the music played during the

recall had a different tempo than the original music, then there was a lowered

ability to recall the words. These results are also supported by a supplementary

investigation, where it was shown that a musical piece can facilitate learning

and recall. Perhaps a common manifestation of this phenomenon is when you

remember the jingles in commercials. A test conducted at the University of

Washington demonstrated that brand names were more easily recalled when they

were presented in the form of a musical tune, instead of just spoken. Hence,

this is a consistent example of one relationship between music and memory.

Now that there is a quasi-established link between the human mind and music,

what are some of the ways that music affects human behavior? Fortunately, there

is a considerable amount of research available that indicates how humans

function while being subjected to music. A group of specialists at the

University of Connecticut studied how people communicate with each other while

background music was present. A hundred and four students were paired off and

put into rooms with either different types of background music playing, or no

music playing. In the rooms, these students were asked to perform some problem

solving tasks that required conversation between them. After five minutes, the

subjects were asked to rate their conversations. Of the students who heard

background music, almost all reported significantly higher satisfaction [with

communication] than those in the no-music condition. The different types of

music also affected the students. The researchers noted that the students who

listened to fast music had differently paced conversations than those who

listened to slow music. The volunteers who listened to major mode music

performed notably better than those who listened to music of minor mode. Thus,

not only does music affect the way humans converse, but different classes of

music influence people in different ways. A further way in which music has an

impact on our behavior can be witnessed in something as conventional as walking!

A recent investigation into the effects of music on walking distance was

performed at Ursinus College. Volunteers were asked to walk for ninety seconds.

The study showed that, music significantly influenced distance walked. The

conclusion reached by the scientists in this instance contradicts the previous

results. Instead of raising the consciousness of the mind, the researchers

hypothesized that the music interfered with or distracted the minds of the test

subjects. A related study concurs with this finding. In this case, college

students were asked to complete two hundred and twenty hand-eye coordination

problems while listening to different types of music. It was found that the

rhythm and loudness of the background music interfered with the attention span

of the students. These last two studies seem to refute the findings of the other

research; but in a sense, all the studies correlate a modification of behavior

caused by the presence of music.

The next reasonable step is to ask how this modification of behavior or affect

of music on the mind can be harnessed. One major field that may benefit from

musics affect on the mind is education. As a matter of fact, it has been shown

that by exposing students in a classroom to music, the musical exposure enhances

class achievement. A research performed at Glassboro State College indicated

that when music was played in a certain psychology class for twenty minutes each

day, the music stimulated the human alpha and beta brain waves, resulting in

the attainment of significantly higher mean scores on examinations than those

who were not exposed to the music. In addition, music can also be used to aid

in the education of mentally handicapped students. In a school district in

Prescott, Arizona, music was added to the academic environment of special

education students. This resulted in an increase in performance, especially in

the area of mathematics.

Thus, it has been established that there is a link between music and the mind or

human behavior. There still, however, remains a great deal of research that

needs to be done in order for us to comprehend the why and how. This is a

substantial challenge, considering that not much is know about the mysteries of

the brain itself, let alone how it is affected by auditory impulse. It should

also be noted that although the studies presented show certain effects of music,

in each study there are exceptions. Some people show no signs of altered

behavior or any other effects of music. There are even some studies where a

majority of the subjects show no known measurable effects of music. Nonetheless

there is a great potential for this topic of the music and the mind. If we

understand how human beings are effected by music, we can alter how human beings

learn and behave, as simply as by turning on the radio.

Please note that this sample paper on The music within itself is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on The music within itself, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on The music within itself will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Peyotism

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"The white man's reality are his streets with their banks, shops, neon lights and traffic, streets full of policemen, whores, and sad-faced people in a hurry to punch a time clock. But this is unreal. The real reality is underneath all this. Grandfather Peyote helps you find it." - Crow Dog Peyote, a hallucinogenic plant that is commonly used as a recreational drug, has a much greater meaning for members of the peyote religion. By examining the effects of peyote along with its role in the rituals and beliefs of the Native American Church it becomes apparent why it is such an integral part of the religion. The trade and knowledge of this sacred plant was already well defined in regions of Mexico well before European conquest and its ceremonial use was already underway in the tribes of the area in which it grew. This religious use eventually spread through North American regions. Along with its migration, the basic rituals and ceremonies changed along the way. The organization of religion involving peyote and the principle rituals had become commonly practiced among the Comanche and Kiowa tribes by the mid-eighteen hundreds. The Native American Church formed in 11, beginning in Oklahoma. Soon after this initial formation, state and local incorporation followed in many places and continue to do so to this day. (Aberle, 1) Now, some form of peyote religion is common to most tribes of the North American continent. Peyote (Lophophora williamsii) is a very small, low growing, fuzzy type of cactus. Most of the cactus is actually underground in a long root. Both the flesh and roots can be eaten. When dried the flesh resembles brown overcoat buttons, which is where the term peyote "buttons" came from. Peyote isn't found just anywhere. It grows in the wild over only a small portion of the Southwestern United States known as the Peyote Garden. Precisely, Corpus Christi, Texas, Deming, New Mexico, Durango, Mexico and Puebla , Mexico bind the area in which this plant can be found and harvested. (Aberle, 5) Containing eight different alkaloids, the most important being mescaline, peyote causes a number of effects. The experience begins with an euphoric quality. It heightens the sensations to sound, color, form and texture. Further into the experience, "visions" begin to occur. These visions can include detailed, realistic pictures and sounds. The interpretation of these visions rather than the visions themselves are what peyotists consider most important. The peyote experience is characterized by a strong feeling of personal significance of the internal and external stimuli encountered during the experience. Many find themselves asking, "What does this mean to me?" The Native American Church came to the Indians during their darkest hour. It was around the time when the last of the buffalo had disappeared from the plains. They were left starving, helpless and with little of their old lives remaining to cling to. In the words of a member of the NAC, Mary Crow Dog, "The Native American Church became the religion of the poorest of the poor, the conquered, the despoiled. Peyote made them understand what was happening and made them endure. It was the only thing that gave them strength in those, our darkest days." It was obvious that a militant religion could not have survived under white dominance. The formation of this religion was a response to the degraded status on Native Americans. It's goal- internal peace and harmony rather than competition. This idea was highly relevant to the socio-economic situation that these indigenous people were being faced with. For many, this was exactly what they needed to continue on. Since the beginning, there has been strong opposition to the Native American Church by several groups. The traditionalist Indians opposed it believing that it was a threat to traditional tribal culture. Modernist Indians as well as whites opposed the religion also saying that it was heathenistic and backward. In the early stages, peyote meetings were illegal not for the use of peyote, but because Native American rituals in general were outlawed. But, in 14, under John Collier, the Bureau of Indian Affairs enacted a policy of non-interference with peyotism. There have been state laws prohibiting the "sale, use or possession of peyote", but all such laws have been repealed since the sixties (Aberle, 18).At the present, it is legal for those acting on behalf of the Native American Church to buy or harvest peyote for their religious needs. Most peyotism that is practiced today is identified with the Native American Church (NAC). It is a loosely organized group with numerous divisions. Within each division are many local chapters, more commonly called moons. Attendance to meetings is dependent on local and kinship ties. The local road chief can deal with all functions of the religion, so no formal organization is necessary. In his book, David Aberle noted that "peyotism has not been marked by numerous schisms; if 'we all worship the same God and all eat peyote,' this is sufficient." The use of peyote for members of NAC is not simply for the pleasure of doing so. It is taken as a religious adjunct, aiding in heightening the level of this special experience. It supplies a feeling of personal significance, which is central to reflecting on one's self, relationships, ethics and in bringing new meaning to these things. There is also believed to be medicinal benefits to peyote. Many Indians claim that it has powers to heal the mind and body. Peyote gives the ability to "get into the power" to the peyotist. Mary Crow Dog wrote about "feeling the strength surging through your body". The fact that no two peyote experiences are the same and the fact that you can never predict how a particular experience will turn out make this power all the more real. This concept of power is common to all Native Americans. It has to do with feeling close to God, or the Great Spirit. This sacred plant also serves as a unifier for the Native Americans. For generations the differences among tribes have kept them from uniting to achieve progress in gaining rights. In the peyote meetings, tribal differences are forgotten. "No longer are we Navajos, Poncas, Apaches or Sioux, but just Indians." (Crow Dog, 101) The fact that peyote unified native people attracted more and more members during the Indian Civil Rights Movement during the sixties because unity was a major goal of the movement that the NAC helped to promote. Although loosely organized, all members of the NAC had a basic system of beliefs and an ethical code that they hold as a guide on how to live their lives. First of all, peyote is believed to be the immaterial personification of power, often referred to as the "Peyote Spirit". The Great Spirit is the ultimate source of this power. By taking peyote it is thought that one can communicate with the Great Spirit through visions. The ethical code, commonly referred to as the Peyote Road, consists of four main parts brotherly love, care of family, self-reliance and avoidance of alcohol. It is believed that if a person follows the Peyote Road faithfully it will lead them to "tranquility in this life as well as bliss in the next world". On the other hand, those who lapse morally in these regards will pay during the peyote meeting, both physically and spiritually (Aberle, 1). The rituals of the Native American Church vary greatly in specifics from tribe to tribe. The Navajo prefer shaping their altar like a half moon, while other tribe may shape their altars differently. Some tribes conduct the peyote meetings in a tipi used especially for that purpose, while other tribes opt to use a regular room in a house. However, there is a set of basic rituals that are common to all tribes in the United States. Peyote meetings are always held for a purpose, commonly to cure, thank the Great Spirit for past blessings, to deter evil and promote good. It is hoped that the prayers of the participants will accomplish the given purpose. The participants gather at sundown for the ceremony that will last until dawn. There are generally four officiates required for the ceremony to take place. There is the road chief, who leads the meeting, a drummer chief, who does most of the drumming, a fire chief, who is in charge of tending to the fire and a cedar chief, who creates the cedar smoke throughout the night. The use of prayer, song, drumming and the joint eating of the peyote at various times throughout the night as well as the drinking of cold water at midnight and early morning are all key elements to the ritual. These practices are all believe to be forms of communication with the Great Spirit. During prayer, there is a staff passed around the meeting to all male participants. The staff is considered male, so females are not allowed to pray with the staff. It is believed that when you pray with the staff, your thoughts travel up it and messages from the Great Spirit travel back down. The drums also aid in the communication. It is said that when a man drums, you can "read his mind". Everyone also takes part in the peyote songs. Typically, the songs do not contain words, but whether or not to add words is up to the singer. The Church members believe that with peyote to guide you, the meanings of these songs can be deciphered. The drum itself is symbolic of the Indians' heartbeats. The Fire Chief starts a fire in the center of the gathering. It is said to represent the eternal life that passes from one generation to the next. The smoke from the cedar incense is then sprinkled over the fire at various times during the night. It is believed to represent all green, living things and to purify everything that the smoke touches. The feather fan and the gourd are also integral parts of the ceremony. The gourd is representative of the Spirit Voice. While the songs are going on, the feather fan is waved in the air to catch the songs. These fans can be made of different types of feathers, all of which symbolize something different. For example, the Water Bird Feather Fan is a chief symbol of the peyote religion and is used to bless the water before drinking it, while the Hawk Feather Fan is a symbol of understanding. All of the materials used during the ceremony are considered to be sacred and symbolic of something the Indians consider important. These materials help in the communication with the Great Spirit, which is the ultimate goal of the meeting. Peyotism is, indeed, a unique religion. The members of the Native American Church take this "powerful medicine" in order to communicate directly with the Great Spirit. They follow a strict ethical code and believe that peyote will help them understand their lives more fully. I greatly admire the idea of reflecting on one's own situation in order to live a tranquil, honest life. The religion was formed as a way of unifying Native Americans and helping them accept and deal with the situation they are faced with. Peyotism has proven largely successful in achieving these goals, making it a wonderful thing for the indigenous people of this country

Please note that this sample paper on peyotism is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on peyotism, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on peyotism will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Thinking shifty thoughts

Reverence for the reverent

Misconstructed rude

It wasn't my intention

To act so bad, no good

Nightly vantage sound and sleep

Must take advantage points

Happy go than lucky

Attending to my joints

An elfish maid with elflocks

Tangled up in blue

The proof is in the pudding

Hope you thought this through

Well for all it's worth

I'm mo a man than wit

Don't you light the candle

Feathery blue tit

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Acidic Destruction

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Acidic Destruction

Sitting in your room late at night, you listen to the gentle pitter-patter of the rain on your window. It is so soothing and relaxing. Have you ever wondered what the rain is really made of? Is that simply water or is it acid slowly streaming down out there? That rain you hear might be acid rain, which is caused by sulfur-dioxide emissions and shown to be harmful to plants, animals, humans, and even buildings and structures.

The commonly used terms "acid rain" and "acid precipitation" describe specific forms of a type of pollution described generally as "acid deposition." Harmful gases that rise into the air mix with cloud moisture, sunlight, and oxidants. There they chemically combine into dilute sulfuric and nitric acids, which fall back to the earth. This is acid deposition. The major contributing pollutants are sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide (Morgan, 5).

"Acid rain" is basically rainwater with a pH level lower than 5.6 (Morgan, ). The term pH means "potential hydrogen". When a substance has a pH level of 7, it is completely neutral with the same number of hydroxyl and hydrogen ions (Pringle, 6). Acidity in the atmosphere can be changed by many natural things. When a volcano erupts, sulfur dioxide is spewed out. Droughts produce unusually dry soil conditions allowing dust particles to be carried upward into the air, neutralizing the acids that may be present at the time (Pringle, 4). Acid rain can come in concentrations sometimes more acidic than lemon juice. These pollutants reach the earth in rain, snow, hail, sleet, or fog. The rain at the beginning of a shower is usually more acidic than the rain that follows. Dry acidic particles can also fall from the atmosphere. Because wind can carry gases and moisture for hundreds of miles, even areas far away from the source bear the effects of acid deposition (Durham, 10). There are of course, many things that we as humans do everyday to promote and support the continuation of acid rain.

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When the fossil fuel, coal, is used, the sulfur in it mixes with oxygen in the air to form sulfur dioxide. The sulfur dioxide is eventually turned into acid over a matter of days. Coal-fired power plants are the single greatest cause of acid rain in the United States. They account for two-thirds of all sulfur dioxide emissions in the US (Pringle 16; Morgan 75). In the mid-180's, the United States alone discharged about 6 million tons of sulfur dioxide (Bennet). For decades, the highest source for sulfur dioxide emissions was the huge Inco, Ltd., a copper and nickel smelter in Sudbury Ontario. Each year the Sudbury plant gave off 1% of the entire world's sulfur dioxide emissions, including both natural and human sources (Morgan, 4).

At a staggering 1,50 ft, Superstack is almost as tall as the Empire State Building. Its main purpose was to act as a giant chimney to take all toxins higher into the atmosphere so that we humans would not have to breathe them. The air quality around the smelter was much better and plant life started growing back. The problem was, the sulfur dioxide was then blown whichever the winds happened to be going. Most of the time those winds to the sulfur dioxide across state borders and into Canada (Morgan, 7) Scientists then used satellite photography to trace the weather patterns back to where the sulfur dioxide originated. The acid falling back down to earth, whether it is in dry or wet form has drastic consequences for many.

One example is when a rainstorm occurs in a forest. The summer rains wash the leaves of the branches and fall to the forest floor below. Some of the water is absorbed into the soil while other water run-off enters nearby streams, rivers, or lakes. When acid rain is absorbed into the ground, it slowly poisons the tree by being absorbed through the roots. Acidic rainwater also dissolves the nutrients and minerals that the plants need from the soil. When acid rain is frequent, leaves tend to lose their protective, waxy coating. After a leaf loses it's coating, it becomes more susceptible to diseases. By damaging the leaves, the plant can not produce enough food energy for it to remain healthy. Trees no longer grow as fast as they did before. Leaves and pines needles turn brown and fall off when they are supposed to be green in color (Phamornsuwana).

Not only are plants affected by acid rain, but animals are as well. Animals in an aquatic biome suffer more extreme consequences than that of any other biome. The simplest way to show the amount of damage would be in the following record/chart. Diary of Death for aquatic life

pH 6.5 The growth rate of brook trout slows and lake trout begin to have trouble reproducing. Clams and snails become scarce. Acid-tolerant organisms, such as certain rotifers and filamentous green algae, start to increase.

pH 6 Brook and rainbow trout populations start to decline. Smallmouth bass and spotted salamanders have trouble reproducing, as do several kinds of mayflies. Several species of clams and snails are wiped out.

pH 5.8 Tiny crustaceans called copepods die out, and some kinds of crayfish have trouble re-growing their hard exoskeletons after they molt.

pH 5.5 Rainbow trout and some smallmouth bass population are becoming extinct. Other trout, shiners, walleyes pike, and roach fail to reproduce and their numbers drop. Leeches and mayfly larvae disappear.

pH 5.4 The reproduction of most crayfish is impaired.

pH 5 All but one species of crayfish are dead. As are the brook trout, walleyed pike, and bullfrogs. Thick mats of green and blue-green algae cover the lake bottom. Some insects in crease because few fish are left to prey on them or because they live on the water surface. These include water boatmen and water striders.

pH 4.8 The number of leopard frogs declines, along with populations of rooted underwater pondweeds.

pH 4.5 Mayflies and stoneflies have all died out.

pH 4. Pumpkinseed sunfish population declines and northern pike have completely disappeared.

pH 4. The common toad dies out. It lives on land but must lay its eggs in ponds and lakes.

pH 4 The spring peeper, another amphibian the produces in ponds and marshes begins to die out. All aquatic plants except those that are acid tolerant are dead or in decline.

pH .5 Virtually all clams, snails, frogs, fish, and crayfish are missing from these acidic waters.

pH .5 Only a few species of acid-tolerant midges and some algae and fungi are alive.

pH The water is remarkably clear, but this in not a healthy clarity. The water is virtually sterile (Bennet).

The waters of tens of thousands of Scandinavian lakes are now unnaturally clear due to acid rain. Hundreds of lakes in New York's Adirondack Mountains are sterile as well. Most lakes and streams have a pH level between 6 and 8. Some lakes are naturally acidic even without the effects of acid rain. For example, Little Echo Pond in New York has a pH level of 4.. Acid rain can enter a lake or pond by many different methods (Durham, 8). Dry particles can come down out of the atmosphere and settle into a lake or pond. Precipitation is another common method as well as drainage from a sewer system. Probably the most drastic method by far would have to be spring acid shock. When acid snow melts in the spring, the acids in the snow seep into the ground. Some of the snow runs off the ground and into lakes (Phamornsuwana). A sudden dose of acids can have long-lasting effects on a lake or pond.

Acid rain does not only damage the natural ecosystems, but also man-made materials and structures. Marble, limestone, and sandstone can easily be dissolved by acid rain. Metals, paints, textiles, and ceramic can effortlessly be corroded. Acid rain can downgrade leather and rubber. Man-made materials slowly deteriorate even when exposed to unpolluted rain, but acid rain helps speed up the process (Morgan, 7). Acid rain causes carvings and monuments in stones to lose their features. It is known to dramatically accelerate the deterioration of buildings, including landmarks such as the Acropolis in Athens, the Taj Mahal in India, and the Statue of Liberty in New York City (Phamornsuwana). The repairs on building and monuments can be quite costly. In Westminster, England, up to ten million pounds was spent necessitated on repairs damaged by acid rain. In 10, the United States spent thirty-five billion dollars on paint damage. In 185, the Cologne Cathedral cost the Germans approximately twenty million dollars in repairs. In Italy, the repairs on the Roman monuments cost about two hundred million dollars (Durham, 111).

Most importantly, acid rain can affect the health of a human being. It can harm us through the atmosphere or through the soil from which our food is grown and eaten from. These foods that are consumed could cause nerve damage to children, severe brain damage, or even death (Phamornsuwana). One of the serious side effects of acid rain on humans is a respiratory problem. The sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emission gives risk to respiratory problems such as dry coughs, asthma, headaches, eye, nose, and throat irritation (Pringle, 64). Polluted rainfall is especially harmful for people who suffer from asthma for people who have hard time breathing. But even healthy people can have their lungs damaged by acid air pollutants. Acid rain can aggravate a persons ability to breathe and may increase disease, which could lead to death (Bennet).

Acid rain is proven to be extremely harmful to the environment, buildings, and human life. Acid rain is made when sulfur dioxides mix with nitrogen oxides to form acids. The acids then can come back down out of the atmosphere in either a dry or a wet form. Both of these have proven devastating to both aquatic animals and forests. Billions of dollars have been spent to correct and try to fix what acid rain had done to buildings and monuments. Even more disturbing, acid rain also has a very serious effect on the health of humans. The causes of acid rain are clear, and although we, as citizens, may not be able to directly control the harmful emissions produced by power plants, we have to do what little we can to save the environment, and ourselves. So walk or ride a bike every once in awhile, but more importantly, write a letter to the government or get involved in research to find new ways of operating those coal-fired power plants.

Works Cited

Bennet, Mark. "Acid Rain" -5-00. Online. Internet. 1-17-6 http//www.soton.ac.uk/~engenvir/enviroment/air/acid.home.html

Durham, Jack. Acid Rain A Student's First Sourcebook. Diane Publishing Co. 14.

Morgan, Sally. Acid Rain. Franklin Watts, Incorporated 1.

Phamornsuwana, Sam. "Effects of Acid Rain" -4-00. Online. Internet. 1-5- http//www.epa.gov/acidrain/effects.html

Pringle, Laurence. Rain of Troubles. Macmillan Publishing Co. 188.

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Deforestation

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The tropical rainforests are falling at human hands. The world's oldest living ecosystem is under threat in our conquest for farmland, timber, minerals, and other resources (Grainger 17). These forests cover % of the Earth's surface, or 6% of its landmass, yet they house over half the plant and animal species on Earth ("Rainforests"). Rainforests originally covered twice that area. Deforestation is occurring on such a scale that if it were to continue "at present rates the forests could disappear within the next one to two hundred years" (Grainger 17).

Why should we be concerned? Deforestation poses a threat to the rich biological diversity of tropical rainforests, hinders the advancement of medicinal discoveries, and contributes largely to the greenhouse effect. Because if the forests go, then so will many of the species that they support. This greatly reduces the biological diversity of the whole planet. Secondly, deforestation curtails "our future options to exploit other plants for medicines," (Grainger 17). Finally, it will contribute to the impending global climate change through the greenhouse effect (Grainger 18). For these reasons it is imperative to control deforestation so that a large area of tropical rainforest will remain.

Tropical rainforests are defined by two primary factors location (in the tropics) and amount of rainfall they receive ("Rainforests"). Rainforests receive from 4 to 8 meters of rain a year ("Rainforests"). Most of the rainfall is blocked by the heavy vegetation, and water reaches the forest floor by rolling down branches and trunks. Another distinctive characteristic is that the rainforests have no "seasonality"no dry or cold season of slower growth ("Rainforests"). In addition, they are the Earth's oldest living ecosystems. The Rainforests are a "priceless part of our natural heritage" and their removal through deforestation would mean the loss of one of the planet's most valuable ecosystems (Grainger 146).

Rainforests are being destroyed at an astounding rate. According to the National Academy of Science, at least 50 million acres a year are lost, "an area the size of England, Wales, and Scotland combined," ("Rainforests"). "All the primary rainforests in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Haiti have been destroyed already" ("Rainforests"). In addition, the rainforests of the Ivory Coast have almost been completely logged. Areas such as the Philippines and Thailand lost over 50% of their rainforests by 185 ("Rainforests"). These statistics prove that there is no more powerful reason for wanting to preserve the tropical rainforests.

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Biological diversity, often shortened to "biodiversity," has three main components ecosystem diversity, species diversity, and genetic diversity. So the biodiversity of a given area is characterized by the presence of different kinds of ecosystems; its species diversity; and its contribution to the genetic diversity of particular species (Grainger 147). According to the National Academy of Sciences, a typical four square mile patch of rainforest contains as many as 1500 species of flowering plants, 750 species of trees, 15 mammal species, 400 species of birds, 100 of reptiles, 60 of amphibians, and 150 species of butterflies ("Rainforests"). In particular, deforestation threatens to reduce these numbers of species, degrade the genetic diversity of individual species, and hinder the survival rate of species already exploited in their wild form in the forests.

Major consequences arise for plant and animal species as a result of deforestation. All forms of disturbance displace animals from part or all of their territories. The more extensive the disturbance, the more likely animals in an area will become overcrowded and their populations will decline due to social pressures, limitations on food, and impaired reproductive activity (Grainger 150). Even by just removing a few plants, the complex annual calendars of food sources could be disrupted. These annual food source schedules enable many rainforest animals, like the orangutan, to cope with the "low density and irregular flowering and fruiting regimes of the plants they eat" (Grainger 150). Moreover, other plants may be affected "if animals on which they rely for pollination or dispersal leave to search for food elsewhere" (150).

Furthermore, genetic diversity of individual species is also being degraded. This is a concern to plant breeders because several of these species are commercially valuable crops (Grainger 147). Their degradation will "threaten our ability to continue breeding new varieties to keep ahead of pests and diseases that threaten products." Several key economic crops that originate in the humid tropics and still grow there today are brazil nut, cashew nut, cocoa, passion fruit, pineapple, rubber, papaya, bamboo, banana, ginger, rice and yam (Grainger 15). Crops that grow on the outskirts of the forests have been bred from wild plants to give the best yields under particular environmental conditions. Extracts from the wild plants have been taken in order to make use of specific genetic characteristics from the entire population. "It is vital to retain a wide genetic diversity of wild plants so that plant breeders can counter threats to crop productivity caused by new pests and diseases and changing climate." For example, in the Amazon huge sums of money are spent in breeding new groundnut varieties resistant to diseases such as leafspot (Caufield). Also, some high yielding rice varieties last only two years before being attacked by a new insect pest and needing replacement (Grainger 15).

Deforestation is increasing the rate of species extinction so that the plants we are using will disappear along with many animals also. "Extinction is an irreversible change and once a species is gone it is lost for good" (Grainger 150). It occurs naturally at a rate of about one species every two years (150). Species are put at much risk early on when their numbers drop so low that they could be eliminated by drought, disease or other random events. There are many endangered species found in the tropical rainforests that risk extinction if the present conditions continue. Some examples are the koupray or wild cow of Southeast Asia, of which only 100 individuals remain, the broad-nosed lemur from Madagascar, which is down to just two colonies, and the southern bearded saki, a monkey living in the forests of the northeast Amazonia (150).

Many medical advances have come from the abundant botanical resources of the tropical rainforests. Half of the Earth's plant species live there and only 1% have been thoroughly examined for medicinal potentials ("Rainforests"). Extracts from organisms are used directly as drugs for many maladies ranging from headaches to lethal diseases such as malaria. An aid in the cure of malaria, quinine, is an alkaloid extracted from the bark of the cinchona tree found in Latin America and Africa ("Rainforests"). Also, the alkaloid d-turbocuarine found in the "deadly poisonous bark of curare lianas is used to treat diseases such as multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and other muscular disorders." Lastly, two important anti-tumor agents are found in periwinkle from Madagascar. "One provides for a % chance of remission in cases of lymphatic leukemia. The other offers a life remission in 58% of Hodgkin's Disease sufferers."

In addition, chemical structures from organisms serve as templates for which scientists can chemically synthesize drug compounds. Approximately 7,000 medical compounds prescribed by Western doctors are derived from plants that reside in the rainforests ("Rainforests"). The blueprint for aspirin is found in extracts from willow trees in the rainforest for example. And ninety percent of prescription drugs that are based on higher plants from the rainforest include direct extractions from those plants ("Rainforests").

Finally, the plants of the rainforest provide aids for research. Some plants provide testing agents for potentially harmful food or drug products while other plant compounds allow scientists to understand how cancer cells grow ("Rainforests"). Also, tropical forests "offer hope to safer contraceptives." "Approximately 4,000 plant species have been shown to offer contraceptive possibilities." This is a notable fact since the exponential growth of the world's population is in need of more effective birth control methods.

Deforestation also contributes significantly to the greenhouse effect and global warming. The greenhouse effect describes how Earth's atmosphere functions. To begin, the sun emits short wave radiation through the atmosphere to the Earth. In return, the Earth radiates some of the sun's energy back into the atmosphere in the form of long-wave infrared radiation. Certain trace gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, and nitrous oxide retain heat by trapping some of the infrared radiation. Without these "greenhouse gases" the Earth would be C cooler than it is now ("Rainforests"). Clearing and burning rainforests releases considerable amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. "Each year, deforestation contributes -0 percent of all carbon dioxide in the atmosphere" ("Rainforests"). Deforestation is also responsible for destroying our means of absorbing and storing the substance. This leads to global warming because the Earth has lost one of its only ways to absorb excess atmospheric carbon. Through photosynthesis the rainforests absorb the carbon dioxide and emit oxygen. Yet, with deforestation there is "more and more carbon released into the atmosphere" due to the burning of the plants, and "less and less forests to remove the carbon from the atmosphere" ("Rainforests").

Rapid warming of the atmosphere can have tremendous consequences. First, many species will not be able to survive the climate change or may not be able to continue life in another habitat. Secondly, the sea level will rise approximately 1.5 meters which will cause coastal flooding ("Rainforests"). Also, an impact can occur on agriculture in food exporting nations such as the United States, Canada and France as a result of drought and drier soil conditions ("Rainforests"). And lastly, there will be increases in severe storms such as hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons ("Rainforests").

Tropical deforestation has many significant environmental impacts. It threatens the biodiversity of our planet, deters medicinal discoveries plant species may offer and contributes to potential global warming resulting from the greenhouse effect. In conclusion, conservation of the tropical rainforests is imperative in order to preserve one of the Earth's oldest, most rich and valuable ecosystems

Works Cited

Caufield, C. In the Rainforest. New York Alfred Knopf, 184.

Grainger, Alan. Controlling Tropical Deforestation. London Earthscan Publications Ltd,

1.

Rainforests Lungs of the Planet Rainforest Action Network. 4 Feb. 00

http//www.ran.org/info_center/

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