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OPERANT (INSTRUMENTAL) CONDITIONING

The major theorists for the development of operant conditioning are Edward Thorndike, John Watson, and B. F. Skinner. This approach to behaviorism played a major role in the development of the science of psychology, especially in the United States. They proposed that learning is the result of the application of consequences; that is, learners begin to connect certain responses with certain stimuli. This connection causes the probability of the response to change (i.e., learning occurs.)

Thorndike labeled this type of learning instrumental. Using consequences, he taught kittens to manipulate a latch (e.g., an instrument). Skinner renamed instrumental as operant because it is more descriptive (i.e., in this learning, one is operating on, and is influenced by, the environment). Where classical conditioning illustrates S--R learning, operant conditioning is often viewed as R--S learning since it is the consequence that follows the response that influences whether the response is likely or unlikely to occur again. It is through operant conditioning that voluntary responses are learned.

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The -term model of operant conditioning (S-- R --S) incorporates the concept that responses cannot occur without an environmental event (e.g., an antecedent stimulus) preceding it. While the antecedent stimulus in operant conditioning does not elicit or cause the response (as it does in classical), it can influence it. When the antecedent does influence the likelihood of a response occurring, it is technically called a discriminative stimulus.

It is the stimulus that follows a voluntary response (i.e., the responses consequence) that changes the probability of whether the response is likely or unlikely to occur again. There are two types of consequences positive (sometimes called pleasant) and negative (sometimes called aversive). These can be added to or taken away from the environment in order to change the probability of a given response occuring again.

General Principles

There are 4 major techniques or methods used in operant conditioning. They result from combining the two major purposes of operant conditioning (increasing or decreasing the probability that a specific behavior will occur in the future), the types of stimuli used (positive/pleasant or negative/aversive), and the action taken (adding or removing the stimulus).

Outcome of Conditioning

Increase Behavior Decrease Behavior

PositiveStimulus PositiveReinforcement (add stimulus) Response Cost (remove stimulus)

NegativeStimulus NegativeReinforcement (remove stimulus) Punishment (add stimulus)

Analyzing Examples of Operant Conditioning

There are five basic processes in operant conditioning positive and negative reinforcement strengthen behavior; punishment, response cost, and extinction weaken behavior.

1. Postive Reinforcement--the term reinforcement always indicates a process that strengthens a behavior; the word positive has two cues associated with it. First, a positive or pleasant stimulus is used in the process, and second, the reinforcer is added (i.e., positive as in + sign for addition). In positive reinforcement, a positive reinforcer is added after a response and increases the frequency of the response.

. Negative Reinforcement-- the term reinforcement always indicates a process that strengthens a behavior; the word negative has two cues associated with it. First, a negative or aversive stimulus is used in the process, and second, the reinforcer is subtracted (i.e., negative as in a - sign for subtraction). In negative reinforcement, after the response the negative reinforcer is removed which increases the frequency of the response. (Note There are two types of negative reinforcement escape and avoidance. In general, the learner must first learn to escape before he or she learns to avoid.)

. Response Cost--if positive reinforcement strengthens a response by adding a positive stimulus, then response cost has to weaken a behavior by subtracting a positive stimulus. After the response the positive reinforcer is removed which weakens the frequency of the response.

4. Punishment--if negative reinforcement strengthens a behavior by subtracting a negative stimulus, than punishment has to weaken a behavior by adding a negative stimulus. After a response a negative or aversive stimulus is added which weakens the frequency of the response.

5. Extinction--No longer reinforcing a previously reinforced response (using either positive or negative reinforcement) results in the weakening of the frequency of the response.

Rules in analyzing examples. The following questions can help in determining whether operant conditioning has occured.

a. What behavior in the example was increased or decreased?

b. Was the behavior increased (if yes, the process has the be either positive or negative reinforcement), or decreased (if the behavior was decreased the process is either response cost or punishment).

c. What was the consequence / stimulus that followed the behavior in the example?

d. Was the consequence / stimulus added or removed? If added the process was either positive reinforcement or punishment. If it was subtracted, the process was either negative reinforcement or response cost.

Examples. The following examples are provided to assist you in analyzing examples of operant conditioning.

a. Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He camped-out on every Friday during the month of June. The last time he camped out, some older kids snuck up to his tent while he was sleeping and threw a bucket of cold water on him. Billy has not camped-out for three weeks.

l. What behavior was changed? camping-out

. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened? weakened (eliminate positive and negative reinforcement)

. What was the consequence? having water thrown on him

4. Was the consequence added or subtracted? added

Since a consequence was added and the behavior was weakened, the process was punishment.

b. Every time Madge raises her hand in class she is called on. She raised her hand time during the first class, times in the second and 4 times during the last class.

l. What behavior was changed? Handraising

. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened? strengthened (eliminates response cost, punishment, and extinction)

. What was the consequence? being called on

4. Was the consequence added or subtracted? added

Since the consequence was added and the behavior was strengthened, the process is positive reinforcement.

c. Gregory is being reinforced using a token economy. When he follows a direction / command he earns a point. At the end of each day, he can buy freetime, t.v. privileges, etc. with his points. When he misbehaves or doesnt follow a command, he loses points. Andrew used to call his mom names. Since he has been on the point system, his name calling has been reduced to almost zero.

l. What behavior was changed? name calling

. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened? weakened (eliminate positive and negative reinforcement)

. What was the consequence? losing points

4. Was the consequence added or subtracted? subtracted

Since the consequence was subtracted and the behavior was weakened, the process is response cost.

d. John does not go to the dentist every 6-months for a checkup. Instead, he waited until a tooth really hurts, then goes to the dentist. After two emergency trips to the dentist, John now goes every 6-months.

1. What behavior was changed? going to the dentist

. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened? strengthened (eliminate response cost and punishment)

. What was the consequence? tooth no longer hurting

4. Was the consequence added or subtracted? subtracted

Since the consequence was subtracted and the behavior was strengthened, the process is negative reinforcement.

Applications of Operant Conditioning to Education

Our knowledge about operant conditioning has greatly influenced educational practices. Children at all ages exhibit behavior. Teachers and parents are, by definition, behavior modifiers (if a child is behaviorally the same at the end of the academic year, you will not have done your job as a teacher; children are supposed to learn (i.e., produce relatively permanent change in behavior or behavior potential) as a result of the experiences they have in the school / classroom setting.

Behavioral studies in classroom settings have clearly established ways to organize and arrange the physical classroom to facilitate both academic and social behavior. Teaching itself has also been the focus of numerous studies, and has resulted in a variety of teaching models for educators at all levels. Programmed instruction is only one such model. Programmed instruction requires that learning be done in small steps, with the learner being an active participant (rather than passive), and that immediate corrective feedback is provided at each step.

Developed by W. Huitt and J. Hummel

Last Revised July , 17

http//chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/operant.html

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning, also called instrumental conditioning, is a method for modifying behavior (an operant) which utilizes contingencies between a discriminative stimulus, an operant response, and a reinforcer to change the probability of a response occurring again in that situation. This method is based on Skinners three-term contingency and it differs from the method of Pavlovian conditioning.

An everyday illustration of operant conditioning involves training your dog to shake on command. Using the operant conditioning technique of shaping, you speak the command to shake (the discriminative stimulus) and then wait until your dog moves one of his forepaws a bit (operant response). Following this behavior, you give your dog a tasty treat (positive reinforcer). After demanding ever closer approximations to shaking your hand, your dog finally comes to perform the desired response to the verbal command shake.

Skinner is famous for the invention of the Skinner box, an experimental apparatus which he designed to modify animal behavior within an operant conditioning paradigm.

Www.psychology.uiowa.edu

The Operant Conditioning of Human Motor Behavior

A very large body of experimental results have accumulated in the field of operant, or instrumental, conditioning of the rat, the pigeon, and of other experimental animals. The application to human behavior of the laws generated by such research is most often done by the use of theory. An alternative method is to demonstrate that the manipulation of classes of empirically defined variables that produce specific and highly characteristic changes in the behavior of small experimental animals in Skinner boxes produce similar changes in the behavior of college students.

This paper reports procedures for the direct application of the variables defining the paradigm for operant conditioning to human behavior and shows that human beings act very much indeed like experimental animals when they are subjected to the same experimental treatments. It suggests that direct application of conditioning principles to some categories of human behavior may be justified. The procedures are simple and they may be followed by anyone, with a minimum of equipment.

That it is possible to condition human motor behavior will surprise few who are concerned with behavior theory. Nevertheless, it has not always been clear what behaviors will act as responses, what events will prove to be reinforcing stimuli, or exactly what procedures would most readily yield reproducible results. This paper describes methods that have been worded out for easy and rapid operant conditioning of motor behavior in humans, states characteristic findings, and reports sample results. Developed in a series of exploratory experiments in an elementary laboratory course in psychology, the methods may have a wider utility.

Development of the Method

In one years class in the introductory laboratory, an attempt was made to reproduce the Greenspoon effect (1), in which the rate of saying plural nouns is brought under experimental control by the use, as a reinforcing stimulus, of a smile by the experimenter, or by his saying Mmmm, or Good. The results were indifferent a few students had good success with some subjects; the majority failed with all their subjects. The successful students seemed, casually, to be the best-looking, most mature, and most socially acceptable; they tended to have prestige. This suggested that the procedure was effective because S cared about Es behavior; that is, he noticed and responded in one way or another to what E said or did.

This observation is consistent with the Guthrian (but Skinner-box-derived) view that if one could isolate any single property shared by reinforcing stimuli (whether primary or secondary), it would prove to be that all reinforcing stimuli produce a vigorous response of very short latency (). Greenspoons procedure was therefore modified to force S to respond to the stimuli that E wished to use as reinforcers. Thereafter, the incidence of failures to condition human Ss dropped considerably.

Using these methods, many kinds of stimuli have been found to be reinforcing in the hands of student experimenters, and a wide variety of responses have been conditioned. Data have been gathered on performance under regular reinforcement, and under such other schedules as variable and fixed interval, and variable and fixed ratio (, 4), both in establishing rates of response and in yielding extinction curves of appropriate form after the termination of reinforcement. Experiments have been done on response differentiation, discrimination training and chaining. Indeed, there is reason to believe that the whole battery of operant phenomena can be reproduced in a short time. Incidental data have been obtained on awareness, insight, or what-have-you.

Here is a sample set of instructions to E for human conditioning. In presenting the method more fully, we shall amplify each section of these instructions in turn.

Procedure Human Operant Motor Conditioning

1. Instruction to subject Your job is to work for points. You get a point every time I tap the table with my pencil. As soon as you get a point, record it immediately. You keep the record of your own points--try to get as many as possible. As necessary Im sorry, I cant answer any questions. Work for points. DO NOT SAY ANYTHING ELSE TO S. Avoid smiling and nodding.

. Reinforcing stimulus pencil tap.

. Response tapping forefinger to chin. Be sure the tap on the chin is complete before reinforcing--that is, be sure that S has tapped his chin and withdrawn his finger. During regular reinforcement, be sure S does not jump the gun and record a point before you give it to him. If S does this, withhold reinforcement and say You got no point that time. You get a point only when I tap the table. Be sure you get a point before recording.

4. Procedures Observe S; determine operant level of chin-tapping before giving instructions.

a. Approximation conditioning of chin-tap (described later).

b. 100 regular reinforcements of chin-tap.

c. Shift to

[1/ of the subjects] 0-second fixed interval reinforcement.

[1/ of the subjects] fixed ratio reinforcement at ratio given by Ss rate per 0 seconds.

[When shifting from regular reinforcement to the schedule, make sure that S doesnt extinguish. If his rate has been high, youll have to shift him, perhaps, to a 01 ratio--with such a change, S will probably extinguish. Prevent this by shifting him first to a 5 1 ratio (for minutes), then to 10 1 (for minutes), then to 0 1. Similarly, put S on 10 second F. I., then a 0-second F. I., and finally on a 0-second one.]

Continue for 500 responses.

d. Extinguish to a criterion of 1 successive 15-second intervals in which S gives not more than responses in all.

5. Subjects awareness

[1/4 of Ss] Record any volunteered statement made by S.

[1/4 of Ss] At the end of the experiment, ask, What do you think was going on during this experiment? How did it work?

[1/4 of Ss] Add to instructions When you think you know why you are getting points, tell me. I wont tell you whether youre right or wrong, but tell me anyway. At about the middle of each procedure, ask, What do you think we are doing now?

[1/4 of Ss] At the beginning of each procedure, give S full instructions

a. Youll get a point every time you tap your chin, like this. (Demonstrate.)

b. From now on, youll get a point for every twentieth response, or ... for a response every 0 second. From now on, youll get no more points, but the experiment will continue.

6. Records

a. Note responses reinforced during approximation; record time required, and number of reinforcements given.

b. Record number of responses by 15-second intervals. Accumulate.

c. Draw cumulative response curves.

d. Be sure your records and graphs clearly show all changes in procedure, and the points at which S makes statements about the procedure.

e. Compute mean rates of response for each part of the experiment.

f. Record all spontaneous comments of S that you can; note any and all aggressive behavior in extinction.

General Notes

Duration and situation. As short a time as 15 minutes, but, more typically, a period of 40 to 50 minutes can be allotted to condition an S, to collect data under regular and partial reinforcement schedules, to develop simple discriminations, and to trace through at least the earlier part of the extinction curve. The experiment should not be undertaken unless S has ample time available; otherwise Ss tend to remember pressing engagements elsewhere when placed on a reinforcement schedule. We have not tried, as yet, to press many Ss very much beyond an hour of experimentation.

The experiments can be done almost anywhere, in a laboratory room, in students living quarters, or in offices. Background distractions, both visual and auditory, should be relatively constant. Spectators, whether they kibitz or not, disturb experimental results.

The E may sit opposite S, so that S can see him (this is necessary with some reinforcing stimuli), or E may sit slightly behind S. S should not be able to see Es record of the data. In any case, E must be able to observe the behavior he is trying to condition.

Subject and experimenter. Any cooperative person can be used as a subject. It does not seem to matter whether S is sophisticated about the facts of conditioning; many Ss successfully conditioned, who gave typical data, had themselves only just served as Es . However, an occasional, slightly sophisticated S may try to figure out how hes supposed to behave and try to give good data. He will then emit responses in such number and variety that it is difficult for E to differentiate out the response in which he is interested.

People who have had some experience with the operant conditioning of rats or pigeons seem to become effective experimenters, learning these techniques faster than others. The E must be skilled in delivering reinforcements at the proper time, and in spotting the responses he wants to condition. With his first and second human S, an E tends to be a little clumsy or slow in reinforcing, and his results are indifferent. About a third of our students are not successful with the first S. Practice is necessary.

Apparatus. The indispensable equipment is that used by E to record a watch with a sweep second hand, and paper and pencil. Beyond these, the apparatus man can have a field day with lights, bells, screens, recorders, and so on. This is unnecessary.

Instructions

Conditioning may occur when no instructions whatever are given, but it is less predictable. The instructions presented here give consistent success.

Subjects may be told that they are participating in a game, an experiment, or in the validation of a test of intelligence. All will work. Spectacular results may be achieved by describing the situation as test of intelligence, but this is not true for all Ss.

In general, the simpler the instructions the better. No mention should be made that S is expected to do anything, or to say anything. Experience suggests that if more explicit instruction is given, results are correspondingly poor. Elaborate instructions tangle S up in a lot of verbally initiated behavior that interferes with the conditioning process.

The instructions will be modified, of course, to fit the reinforcement. It seems to be important for S to have before him a record of the points he has earned. (This is not, of course, Es record of the data.) It seems to be better if he scores himself, whether by pressing a key that activates a counter, or by the method described here. Most Ss who do not have such a record either do not condition, or they quit working.

Reinforcing Stimuli

Any event of short duration whose incidence in time is under the control of E may be used as a reinforcing stimulus if S is instructed properly. The most convenient is the tap of a pencil or ruler on a table or chair arm, but E may say point, good, and so on. Lights, buzzers, counters, all work. One student found that getting up and walking around the room and then sitting down was a very effective reinforcer for his instructed S. (Make me walk around the room.)

The E may assign a value to the reinforcing stimulus in the instructions--e.g., for each 10 points S gets a cigarette, a nickel, or whatever. Members of a class may be told that if they earn enough points as Ss, they may omit writing a lab report.

Where no instructions are given, or where the instructions do not provide for an explicit response to a reinforcing stimulus (as in the Greenspoon experiment--i.e., when E wished to use a smile, or an mmmm, with the intention of showing learning without awareness) many Ss will not become conditioned.

The most important features of the operation of reinforcement are (a) that the reinforcing stimulus have an abrupt onset, (b) that it be delivered as soon as possible after the response being conditioned has occurred, and (c) that it not be given unless the response has occurred. Delayed reinforcement slows up acquisition; it allows another response to occur before the reinforcement is given, and this response, rather than the chosen one, gets conditioned. The best interval at which to deliver a reinforcing stimulus seems to be the shortest one possible--the Es disjunctive reaction time.

When S has been conditioned and is responding at a high rate, he may show conditioned recording--i.e., he will record the point before E has given it to him. The E must watch for this.

When S can observe E, it is entirely possible that Ss behavior is being reinforced, not by the chosen reinforcing stimulus, but by others of Es activities, such as intention movements of tapping the table, nods of the head, and recording the response. The effect of such extraneous reinforcers can be easily observed during extinction, when the designated reinforcing stimulus is withdrawn. The precautions to be taken here will depend upon the purpose of the experiment. The E should thus remain as quiet and expressionless as possible.

The Response

The E has great latitude in his choice of behavior to be conditioned. It may be verbal or motor, it may be a response of measurable operant level before reinforcement, it may be a complex and infrequent response that S seldom, if ever, has performed. One qualification is that the response must be one that terminates relatively quickly, so that reinforcement can be given. (One E conditioned an S to bend his head to the left, reinforcing when the head was bent. The S held his head bent for longer and longer times, and so got fewer and fewer reinforcements as the procedure became effective. He became bored and stopped working.)

Motor behavior. The E may observe S for a few minutes before proposing to do an experiment on him and choose to condition some motor behavior S occasionally shows, such as turning his head to the right, smiling, or touching his nose with his hand.

The E will then first determine its operant level over a period of time before he starts to reinforce. Here, changes in rate of response as a function of the reinforcement variables demonstrate conditioning. Such behavior is easily conditioned without awareness.

The E may decide in advance on a piece of Ss behavior he wishes to condition. In this case, he may choose something like picking up a pencil, straightening his necktie, and so on. If E chooses something as simple as this, he can usually afford to sit and wait for it to occur as an operant. If it does not, he may find it necessary to shape the behavior, as will be necessary if he chooses a relatively or highly unlikely piece of behavior, such as turning the pages of a magazine, slapping the ankle, twisting a button, looking at the ceiling, placing the back of the hand on the forehead, writing a particular word, or assuming a complex posture.

Many of the readers will question this use of the word response. It is being used in accordance with the definition made explicit in Skinners The Behavior of Organisms

Any recurrently identifiable part of behavior that yields orderly functional relationships with the manipulation of specified classes of environmental variables is a response.

So far, this concept has proven a useful one We have not explored the outer limits of the concept, with respect either to the topography or to the consequences of the behavior--we have not sampled broadly enough to find parts of behavior tentatively classifiable as responses that didnt yield such functions when we tried to condition them.

The contingencies of reinforcement, established in advance by E, determine the specifying characteristics of a response He may reinforce only one word, or one trivial movement. In this case, he gets just that word or movement back from S. If E reinforces every spoken sentence containing any word of a specifiable class (e.g., the name of an author) he gets back from S a long discussion of literary figures. Plotted cumulatively, instances of naming of authors and titles in a whole sentence behave as a response class. By restricting reinforcement to naming one author, the discussion is narrowed. This method may serve fruitfully in research on what some call response-classes and others call categories of behavior.

Discussion

Operant conditioning as it was described in The Behavior of Organisms is concerned with the behavior that the layman calls voluntary. This characterization is still valid--the behavior during conditioning is not forced, as one might characterize the conditioned knee-jerk, or necessarily unconscious, as might be applied to the conditioned GSR. Ss work because they want to. Ss behavior is nonetheless lawful and orderly as a function of the manipulations of E, and his behavior is predictable by extrapolation from that of lower animals.

These assertions, like the procedure itself, involve no theoretical assumptions, presuppositions, or conclusions about what is going on inside Ss head. It does not assert that all learning occurs according to this set of laws, or that this process of conditioning is typical of all human learning. It does not assert that S is no better (or worse) than a rat, or that his behavior is unintelligent, or that since, say Ss get information from a reinforcing stimulus, so too do rats. The behavior is highly similar in the two cases--we leave it to others to make assertions to the effect that rats think like men, or that men think like rats.

The procedures can be characterized as bearing close relationship to a number of parlor games. Indeed, such conditioning might be considered by some as nothing more than a parlor game. This would not be the first time, however, that examples of rather basic psychological laws turned up in this context. Parlor games, like other recreational activities, are, to be sure, determined culturally, but it is doubtful that a parlor game could be found whose rules were in conflict with the general laws of behavior.

That the procedure is more than a parlor game is demonstrated by the fact that it provides a situation in which a number of the variables controlling voluntary behavior can be experimentally isolated and manipulated; that stable measures of a wide variety of behavior are yielded and, finally, that the procedure yields orderly data that may be treated in any one of a variety of theoretical systems.

Theoretical Discussion

The data lend themselves very well indeed to theoretical discussion in terms of perceptual reorganization, habit strength, expectancy, or knowledge of results, as well as to simple empirical description in the vocabulary of conditioning. Chàcun a son got.

Summary

A series of procedures are presented that enable an experimenter to reproduce, using the motor (and verbal) behavior of human subjects, functions that have been previously described in the behavior of rats and pigeons. Some remarks on awareness in the situation are made.

http//cogprints.soton.ac.uk/documents/disk0/00/00/06/04/cog00000604-00/biblio5.html

Comparison of Classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical and operant conditioning share many of the same basic principles and procedures. For example, Kimble (161) has pointed out that the basic principles of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, and stimulus generalization are common to both types of learning. There are several differences, however, between classical and operant conditioning. Although a basic feature of operant conditioning is reinforcement, classical conditioning relies more on association between stimuli and responses. A second distinction is that much of operant conditioning is based on voluntary behavior, while classical conditioning often involves involuntary reflexive behavior. These distinctions are not as strong as they once were believed to be. For example, Neal Miller (178) has demonstrated that involuntary responses, such as heart rate, can be modified through operant conditioning techniques. It now appears that classical conditioning does involve reinforcement. And many classical conditioning situations also involve operant behavior. For example, lets assume that Tina was conditioned to fear rats like Little Albert. She would first learn to associate the rat with the loud noise through classical conditioning. Then presentation of the rat would produce a fear reaction and Tina would learn to escape from the aversive stimulus through operant conditioning (negative reinforcement). This is sometimes called the two-factor theory of avoidance conditioning (Mowrer & Lamoreaux, 14).

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Acquisition Acquisition

Extinction Extinction

Spontaneous recovery Spontaneous recovery

Stimulus generalization Stimulus generalization

Association between stimuliand responses Reinforcement

Based on involuntary reflexive behavior Based on voluntary behavior

http//tip.psychology.org/skinnerhtml

Operant Conditioning

(B.F. Skinner)

Overview

The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individuals response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. The distinctive characteristic of operant conditioning relative to previous forms of behaviorism (e.g., Thorndike, Hull) is that the organism can emit responses instead of only eliciting response due to an external stimulus.

Reinforcement is the key element in Skinners S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also covers negative reinforcers -- any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn (different from adversive stimuli -- punishment -- which result in reduced responses). A great deal of attention was given to schedules of reinforcement (e.g. interval versus ratio) and their effects on establishing and maintaining behavior.

One of the distinctive aspects of Skinners theory is that it attempted to provide behavioral explanations for a broad range of cognitive phenomena. For example, Skinner explained drive (motivation) in terms of deprivation and reinforcement schedules. Skinner (157) tried to account for verbal learning and language within the operant conditioning paradigm, although this effort was strongly rejected by linguists and psycholinguists. Skinner (171) deals with the issue of free will and social control.

Scope/Application

Operant conditioning has been widely applied in clinical settings (i.e., behavior modification) as well as teaching (i.e., classroom management) and instructional development (e.g., programmed instruction). Parenthetically, it should be noted that Skinner rejected the idea of theories of learning (see Skinner, 150).

Example

By way of example, consider the implications of reinforcement theory as applied to the development of programmed instruction (Markle, 16; Skinner, 168)

1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - answer (response) frames which expose the student to the subject in gradual steps

. Require that the learner make a response for every frame and receive immediate feedback

. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence a positive reinforcement

4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades.

Principles

1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective

. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced (shaping)

. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli (stimulus generalization) producing secondary conditioning

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(You cannot forget that in this treaty, the Choctaw traded 10. million acres of land east of the Mississippi for 10. acres in Oklahoma and Arkansas that we already owned under previous treaties.) Further, it included provisions and monetary annuities, to assist the people to make a new start. One half of the people were to depart almost immediately, the rest the next year. On March 7, 188, congress did not accept the request for the relief of the Cherokee. Many then saw their land and property sold before their own eyes. The conveyances promised turn out to be a forced march. it was said that ...seven thousand soldiers swooped over the nation causing the Cherokees to suffer greatly and also the troops were ordered To use guns and swords if necessary to punish any Cherokee who tried to hide. (Brill, 4) At the point of a gun, the pace killed many of the old, exposure and bad food killed most. Spoiled beef and vegetables are poor provisions, Many walked the entire distance without shoes, barely clothed. It is told that, Hateful soldiers prodded and kicked the old and sick on their march to the camps. Those who were too weak to keep up were left by the road without food to recover or die. Soldiers pricked friends and family with bayonets to keep them from turning back to help (Brill, 45). These horrid conditions are what the Indians had to deal with. The supplies that were given had been rejected by the Americans. One person complained my feet are blistered and on my back is a read and blue backpack of fifty pounds (Ellis). The government cannot be blamed fully, nearly all of this was done by men that were interested only in making profits. They governments really is just wrong for not watching over the whole deal. Many of the old and the children died on the road. At each allowed stop, the dead were buried. Hearing of this many escaped. They knew that as they signed the rolls, to be removed, that they were signing their own death warrants( Brill, 4) . They hid in places that no one would travel to look for them (i.e., Swamps, hills). But as this horror occurred those in charge just reported their peaceful progress. (Ellis, walking the trial one mans journey along the Cherokee trail of tears.) Some marching claimed to be Black Dutch, Spanish, Creole, or Black. These people were accepted by neither the Americans or the papered. Many others who had to march fled to Illinois, Missouri, Arkansas, and Louisiana. The fertile lands, alive with game, lush with forests turned out to be bone-dry and covered in alkali pits. To the Indians the summer was more than hot, in the winter it was freezing. The Americans decided they needed more land. Again, pressure was brought to bear on the Choctaw. When this happened the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Kickapoo, Seminole, Wyandotte, Lenapi, Mohawk, and others had their reservations shrunk around them. The Choctaw were the first to be removed, the governments power and in fit for land, had removed nearly all of the Indians. The Mississippi Band of the Choctaw had escaped being removed, but had their land stripped down to 500 acres, and in five years none of that land was in Indian hands. Americans moved into Arkansas They ignored the treaties. The Indians who fled to California were being displaced by miners, farmers and ranchers. The discovery of gold g forming around the Indian people, so that expansion from the East was equaled by expansion from the West. ( Brill, The Trail of tears The Cherokee journey from home.) The Lakota watched their lands, cut to almost a third and then again until nearly all was gone. The gold prospect was a delight to the Americans along the way. Then In the 1880s, came Wovoka, who offered a message of hope and peace. With him he brought the Ghost Dance and all tribes listened to that Siren song. At the peak of this frenzy came Wounded Knee. There, unarmed and innocent men, women, and children were murdered by scared soldiers, who never took the time to find out what this was all about. Then what is ironic is that Medals of Honor were given to these men ... killing without even knowing why ... Not necessary death is honorable then. And then all American children know that The only good Indian is a dead Indian. George hicks complained Our property has been stolen and robbed from us by the white men. Why are they so bold? They know that we are in a defenseless situation, dependent on the Government for protection. (Brill, 51) Andrew Jackson was a sly fellow indeed. It is very Ironic that a chief saved Andrew Jacksons life during battle, yet Jackson never saw the Cherokees as having equal rights. The chief said If I had known Jackson would drive is from out homes I would have killed him that day. Jackson believed that in his case for the Indian removal, he believed that The consequences of a speedy removal will be important to the United States, to individual States, and to the Indians themselves. Jackson said he wanted this only for the good of the Indians. In the provisions made two important tribes agreed to it and felt that the rest would follow. Manifest destiny had to be a real strong belief of Jackson because he said What good man would prefer a country covered with forests and ranged by a few thousand savages to our extensive Republic, studded with cities, towns, and prosperous farms, embellished with all the improvements which art can devise or industry execute, occupied by more than 1,000,000 happy people, and filled with all the blessings of liberty, civilization, and religion? A little foolish statement I believe because the Indians liked everything how it was. Nevertheless Jackson allowed this horrid deed to occur. He says he wanted to do this for the benefit of the Indian but did any Indians benefit from this or was their land truly stolen and then were treated unfairly by the government. Jackson spiced everything up for the people in his speeches but in real life ironically forgot that if it were not for an Indian he would be dead himself. (Andrew Jacksons case for removal of the Indians). Really the only thing that Jackson wanted was manifest destiny and more land for America. He was simply an opportunist given a chance and he took it. Everyone believed that the trail of tears, the Indian removal or whatever other name that you can give to it was something good for America. A land based on freedom and equality but something like this can happen. For the good of the Indians, Andrew Jackson humbly believed, but was it truly for the profit of himself and the country first before the good of the Indians (Andrew Jacksons case for removal of the Indians).

Works Cited

Ellis, Jerry. Walking the trail One mans journey along the Cherokee Trail of Tears. New York Dell Publishing, 11. Andrew Jackson Andrew Jacksons Case for the Removal of Indians. Online. America Online. 0 March 001. Brill, Marlene Tars. The Trail of Tears The Cherokee Journey from home. Connecticut The Millbrook Press, Inc., 15.

Word Count 14

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Primary and Secondary Data Collection Method

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As an Internet service provider, my primary task should be to provide the fastest and most reliable service to my customers. In this day and age, Internet service providers come a dime a dozen. They vary from telephone modem carriers such as Earthlink and Netzero to the faster service providers such as Time Warner's Roadrunner and Cox Cables' high speed Cox service. With so many providers out there, the competition is fierce. But, as a business owner, my job is to get as many clients as possible, which means either signing up a new Internet user or getting an existing Internet user to switch over their service to my organization. But, how does one go about doing this? The first step is to estimate the number of people in your service area with Internet connections in their households. This is done through proper data collection.

Data collection can be done through any number of ways. But, in the collection method, one needs to keep the costs down, get the information in a speedy manner, and verify that the data collected is reliable. For something like Internet service verification, one good means of data collection would be to conduct a telephone survey over a two to three week time period. The initial cost for this type of data collection would be very minimal. To begin, you would need the proper facility in which to house five to six phones. As an Internet Service Providers, having access to extra phone lines should not be difficult at all. One could plan on hiring a temporary phone marketing survey team by placing an advertisement in the local newspaper. The cost for the ad would be around $50.00 for the three week time period. The staff could be paid minimum wage, which is $6.50 per hour in California. With between five and six telephone operators, working five hours a day for three 5-day work weeks, the labor costs would run between $48.00 and $5.00. Again, this is a high number. One could always cut back on the amount of phone operators working or the time it takes to conduct the phone survey. This means of data collection is reliable and does not require a lot of extra labor hours or resources to be completed. The two to three week time span in which it takes to complete the survey is really quite a fast turn-around. But, a telephone survey is not the only route in which one could take with an Internet Service Provider data collection.

Using the old door-to-door method is also a viable way to collect information. But, the only problem with this is the amount of manpower needed to do so. First, we would need to place an ad in the local newspaper as we did with the phone marketing campaign. An average sized ad is going to cost roughly $50.00 for a two-three week period. From this ad we would hope to capture at least 5 good candidates. After this process has been completed, we send the "troops" out to comb the neighborhoods at least 8 hours a day for three weeks. Now, unfortunately, our labor costs will be much higher with an increase of up to three more hours of payroll each day. These extra payroll costs are unavoidable, as we will need more time to cover the same amount of ground as our staff is now on foot as opposed to using the phone. Total labor costs at the end of the three weeks will run as high as $4050.00 which is quite a bit more then our budgeted $5.00 for the phone marketing expenses. Now, we should also factor in that on a door-to-door basis, there will be many people who would be less apt to talk to our staff in person then over the phone. This will also get us less actual responses. When all is said and done, let us compare the results.

With a phone survey, we were able to keep our overhead down and the speed of the data collection was extremely efficient compared to the old door-to-door methods of collection. The reliability of the phone surveys and the door-to-door surveys were pretty much the same. Although, by keeping our staff in doors to conduct surveys over the phone, we were able to keep them fresh and alert. This created an overall better voice appeal to the individuals that we were surveying and we were able to get a much better response from the households. For this situation, the data collection method most appropriate for this situation was the telephone survey. It was the most reliable, the fastest, and most cost effective way to conduct our data research.

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Flammable and Combustible Liquids

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NFPA 0

Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code

This first came into existence in 11, at that time it was used as a model municipal ordinance known as the Suggested Ordinance for the Storage, Handling, and Use of Flammable Liquids. It stayed under this title until 157 when it was formatted into a code. The code was still basically the same as it was before, technical requirements and provisions stayed the same. During the codes eighty-nine year existence it has been revised numerous times to dictate increased experience and advances in technology.

The code is recommended for use as the basis for legal regulations on flammable and combustible liquids. It is intended to reduce the hazard to a degree consistent with reasonable public safety, without undue interference with public convenience and necessity, of operations that require the use of flammable and combustible liquids. Compliance with this standard does not eliminate all hazards in the use of flammable and combustible liquids.

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This code applies to the storage, handling, and use of flammable liquids, including waste liquids, as defined and classified. That means anything containing flammable or combustible liquid is under the reign of this code. Although there are exceptions to this.

The code doesn't apply in certain instances. A liquid that has a melting point equal to or greater than one hundred degrees Fahrenheit or that does not meet the criteria for fluidity given in the definition for liquid in the code. Also any liquefied gas or cryogenic liquid do not apply to the code. Any liquid that does not have a flashpoint, which can be flammable under some conditions, such as certain halogenated hydrocarbons and mixtures containing halogenated hydrocarbons. The storage of flammable and combustible liquids as covered by NFPA 5 nullifies the use of NFPA 0 on them.

The transportation of flammable and combustible liquids does not fall under the code. This is to be governed by the U.S. Department of Transportation. They decide the rules for transporting the flammable and combustible liquids. So it does not fall under the responsibility of the NFPA 0 standard.

The purpose of the code has not changed in it's history of existence. This code is to provide reasonable requirements for the safe storage and handling of flammable and combustible liquids. Materials of this category do logically need a code to manage their handling and storage.

The Code is not intended to prevent the use of systems, methods, or devices of equivalent or superior quality, strength, fire resistance, effectiveness, durability, or safety over those prescribed by this code, provided that technical documentation is submitted to the authority having jurisdiction to demonstrate equivalency and the system, method, or device is approved for the intended purpose. The provisions of this code shall be permitted to be altered at the discretion of the authority having jurisdiction after consideration of special situations, such as topographical conditions of the site, presence or absence of protective features, adequacy of building exits, the nature of occupancy, proximity to buildings or adjoining property and the construction of such buildings, capacity and construction of proposed storage tanks and the nature of the liquids to be stored, the nature of the process, the degree to which private fire protection is provided, and the capabilities of the local fire department. Such alternative arrangements shall provide protection at least equivalent to that required by this code. The code is also permitted to be altered at the discretion of the authority having jurisdiction in cases where other regulations, such as environmental protection, impose requirements that are not anticipated by this code. Such alternate arrangements shall still provide at least equivalent protection to what is required by code.

The provisions of this code shall be considered necessary to provide a reasonable level of protection from loss of life and property from fire and explosion. They reflect situations and the state of the art prevalent at the time the code was issued. Unless otherwise noted, it shall not be intended that the provisions of this code be applied to facilities, equipment, structures, or installations that were existing or approved for construction or installation prior to the effective date of this code, except in those cases where it is determined by authority having jurisdiction that the existing situation involves a distinct hazard to life or adjacent property.

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Bible Prophecy

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Bible Prophecy

Israel's Role In Biblical Prophecy

A Covenant of Hope

Genesis 1

Cheap University Papers on Bible Prophecy

1 Now the LORD had said unto Abram, Get thee out of thy country, and from thy kindred, and from thy fathers house, unto a land that I will shew thee

And I will make of thee a great nation, and I will bless thee, and make thy name great; and thou shalt be a blessing

And I will bless them that bless thee, and curse him that curseth thee and in thee shall all families of the earth be blessed.

4 So Abram departed, as the LORD had spoken unto him; and Lot went with him and Abram was seventy and five years old when he departed out of Haran.

5 And Abram took Sarai his wife, and Lot his brothers son, and all their substance that they had gathered, and the souls that they had gotten in Haran; and they went forth to go into the land of Canaan; and into the land of Canaan they came.

Hebrews 8

8 For finding fault with them, he saith, Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, when I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and with the house of Judah

Not according to the covenant that I made with their fathers in the day when I took them by the hand to lead them out of the land of Egypt; because they continued not in my covenant, and I regarded them not, saith the Lord.

10 For this is the covenant that I will make with the house of Israel after those days, saith the Lord; I will put my laws into their mind, and write them in their hearts and I will be to them a God, and they shall be to me a people

Genesis

15 And I will put enmity between thee and the woman, and between thy seed and her seed; it shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise his heel.

Matthew 1

1 The book of the generation of Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son of Abraham.

Abraham begat Isaac; and Isaac begat Jacob; and Jacob begat Judas and his brethren;

And Judas begat Phares and Zara of Thamar; and Phares begat Esrom; and Esrom begat Aram;

4 And Aram begat Aminadab; and Aminadab begat Naasson; and Naasson begat Salmon;

5 And Salmon begat Booz of Rachab; and Booz begat Obed of Ruth; and Obed begat Jesse;

Matthew 1

6 And Jesse begat David the king; and David the king begat Solomon of her that had been the wife of Urias;

7 And Solomon begat Roboam; and Roboam begat Abia; and Abia begat Asa;

8 And Asa begat Josaphat; and Josaphat begat Joram; and Joram begat Ozias;

And Ozias begat Joatham; and Joatham begat Achaz; and Achaz begat Ezekias;

10 And Ezekias begat Manasses; and Manasses begat Amon; and Amon begat Josias;

11 And Josias begat Jechonias and his brethren, about the time they were carried away to Babylon

1 And after they were brought to Babylon, Jechonias begat Salathiel; and Salathiel begat Zorobabel;

1 And Zorobabel begat Abiud; and Abiud begat Eliakim; and Eliakim begat Azor;

14 And Azor begat Sadoc; and Sadoc begat Achim; and Achim begat Eliud;

15 And Eliud begat Eleazar; and Eleazar begat Matthan; and Matthan begat Jacob;

16 And Jacob begat Joseph the husband of Mary, of whom was born Jesus, who is called Christ.

Revelation 7

1 And after these things I saw four angels standing on the four corners of the earth, holding the four winds of the earth, that the wind should not blow on the earth, nor on the sea, nor on any tree.

And I saw another angel ascending from the east, having the seal of the living God and he cried with a loud voice to the four angels, to whom it was given to hurt the earth and the sea,

Saying, Hurt not the earth, neither the sea, nor the trees, till we have sealed the servants of our God in their foreheads.

4 And I heard the number of them which were sealed and there were sealed an hundred and forty and four thousand of all the tribes of the children of Israel.

5 Of the tribe of Juda were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Reuben were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Gad were sealed twelve thousand.

6 Of the tribe of Aser were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Nephthalim were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Manasses were sealed twelve thousand.

7 Of the tribe of Simeon were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Levi were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Issachar were sealed twelve thousand.

8 Of the tribe of Zabulon were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Joseph were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Benjamin were sealed twelve thousand.

Genesis 11

1 And the whole earth was of one language, and of one speech.

And it came to pass, as they journeyed from the east, that they found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they dwelt there.

And they said one to another, Go to, let us make brick, and burn them thoroughly. And they had brick for stone, and slime had they for morter.

4 And they said, Go to, let us build us a city and a tower, whose top may reach unto heaven; and let us make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth.

5 And the LORD came down to see the city and the tower, which the children of men builded.

6 And the LORD said, Behold, the people is one, and they have all one language; and this they begin to do and now nothing will be restrained from them, which they have imagined to do.

7 Go to, let us go down, and there confound their language, that they may not understand one anothers speech.

8 So the LORD scattered them abroad from thence upon the face of all the earth and they left off to build the city.

Therefore is the name of it called Babel; because the LORD did there confound the language of all the earth and from thence did the LORD scatter them abroad upon the face of all the earth.

Genesis 1

1 Now the LORD had said unto Abram, Get thee out of thy country, and from thy kindred, and from thy fathers house, unto a land that I will shew thee

And I will make of thee a great nation, and I will bless thee, and make thy name great; and thou shalt be a blessing

And I will bless them that bless thee, and curse him that curseth thee and in thee shall all families of the earth be blessed.

Genesis 15

And Abram said, LORD God, what wilt thou give me, seeing I go childless, and the steward of my house is this Eliezer of Damascus?

And Abram said, Behold, to me thou hast given no seed and, lo, one born in my house is mine heir.

4 And, behold, the word of the LORD came unto him, saying, This shall not be thine heir; but he that shall come forth out of thine own bowels shall be thine heir.

Genesis 15

5 And he brought him forth abroad, and said, Look now toward heaven, and tell the stars, if thou be able to number them and he said unto him, So shall thy seed be.

6 And he believed in the LORD; and he counted it to him for righteousness.

Genesis 15

7 And he said unto him, I am the LORD that brought thee out of Ur of the Chaldees, to give thee this land to inherit it.

8 And he said, LORD God, whereby shall I know that I shall inherit it?

And he said unto him, Take me an heifer of three years old, and a she goat of three years old, and a ram of three years old, and a turtledove, and a young pigeon.

10 And he took unto him all these, and divided them in the midst, and laid each piece one against another but the birds divided he not.

11 And when the fowls came down upon the carcases, Abram drove them away.

1 And when the sun was going down, a deep sleep fell upon Abram; and, lo, an horror of great darkness fell upon him.

1 And he said unto Abram, Know of a surety that thy seed shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs, and shall serve them; and they shall afflict them four hundred years;

14 And also that nation, whom they shall serve, will I judge and afterward shall they come out with great substance.

15 And thou shalt go to thy fathers in peace; thou shalt be buried in a good old age.

16 But in the fourth generation they shall come hither again for the iniquity of the Amorites is not yet full.

Genesis 8

10 And Jacob went out from Beersheba, and went toward Haran.

11 And he lighted upon a certain place, and tarried there all night, because the sun was set; and he took of the stones of that place, and put them for his pillows, and lay down in that place to sleep.

1 And he dreamed, and behold a ladder set up on the earth, and the top of it reached to heaven and behold the angels of God ascending and descending on it.

1 And, behold, the LORD stood above it, and said, I am the LORD God of Abraham thy father, and the God of Isaac the land whereon thou liest, to thee will I give it, and to thy seed;

14 And thy seed shall be as the dust of the earth, and thou shalt spread abroad to the west, and to the east, and to the north, and to the south and in thee and in thy seed shall all the families of the earth be blessed.

15 And, behold, I am with thee, and will keep thee in all places whither thou goest, and will bring thee again into this land; for I will not leave thee, until I have done that which I have spoken to thee of.

Genesis 50

4 And Joseph said unto his brethren, I die and God will surely visit you, and bring you out of this land unto the land which he sware to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob.

5 And Joseph took an oath of the children of Israel, saying, God will surely visit you, and ye shall carry up my bones from hence.

Genesis 15

1 After these things the word of the LORD came unto Abram in a vision, saying, Fear not, Abram I am thy shield, and thy exceeding great reward.

And Abram said, LORD God, what wilt thou give me, seeing I go childless, and the steward of my house is this Eliezer of Damascus?

And Abram said, Behold, to me thou hast given no seed and, lo, one born in my house is mine heir.

4 And, behold, the word of the LORD came unto him, saying, This shall not be thine heir; but he that shall come forth out of thine own bowels shall be thine heir.

5 And he brought him forth abroad, and said, Look now toward heaven, and tell the stars, if thou be able to number them and he said unto him, So shall thy seed be.

6 And he believed in the LORD; and he counted it to him for righteousness.

7 And he said unto him, I am the LORD that brought thee out of Ur of the Chaldees, to give thee this land to inherit it.

8 And he said, LORD God, whereby shall I know that I shall inherit it?

And he said unto him, Take me an heifer of three years old, and a she goat of three years old, and a ram of three years old, and a turtledove, and a young pigeon.

10 And he took unto him all these, and divided them in the midst, and laid each piece one against another but the birds divided he not.

11 And when the fowls came down upon the carcases, Abram drove them away.

1 And when the sun was going down, a deep sleep fell upon Abram; and, lo, an horror of great darkness fell upon him.

1 And he said unto Abram, Know of a surety that thy seed shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs, and shall serve them; and they shall afflict them four hundred years;

14 And also that nation, whom they shall serve, will I judge and afterward shall they come out with great substance.

15 And thou shalt go to thy fathers in peace; thou shalt be buried in a good old age.

16 But in the fourth generation they shall come hither again for the iniquity of the Amorites is not yet full.

Genesis 46

6 All the souls that came with Jacob into Egypt, which came out of his loins, besides Jacobs sons wives, all the souls were threescore and six;

7 And the sons of Joseph, which were born him in Egypt, were two souls all the souls of the house of Jacob, which came into Egypt, were threescore and ten.

Exodus 1

1 Now these are the names of the children of Israel, which came into Egypt; every man and his household came with Jacob.

Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah,

Issachar, Zebulun, and Benjamin,

4 Dan, and Naphtali, Gad, and Asher.

5 And all the souls that came out of the loins of Jacob were seventy souls for Joseph was in Egypt already.

6 And Joseph died, and all his brethren, and all that generation.

7 And the children of Israel were fruitful, and increased abundantly, and multiplied, and waxed exceeding mighty; and the land was filled with them.

8 Now there arose up a new king over Egypt, which knew not Joseph.

And he said unto his people, Behold, the people of the children of Israel are more and mightier than we

10 Come on, let us deal wisely with them; lest they multiply, and it come to pass, that, when there falleth out any war, they join also unto our enemies, and fight against us, and so get them up out of the land.

11 Therefore they did set over them taskmasters to afflict them with their burdens. And they built for Pharaoh treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses.

1 But the more they afflicted them, the more they multiplied and grew. And they were grieved because of the children of Israel.

1 And the Egyptians made the children of Israel to serve with rigour

14 And they made their lives bitter with hard bondage, in morter, and in brick, and in all manner of service in the field all their service, wherein they made them serve, was with rigour.

Exodus

4 And God heard their groaning, and God remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob.

Exodus

6 Moreover he said, I am the God of thy father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob. And Moses hid his face; for he was afraid to look upon God.

15 And God said moreover unto Moses, Thus shalt thou say unto the children of Israel, the LORD God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, hath sent me unto you this is my name for ever, and this is my memorial unto all generations.

Exodus 4

5 That they may believe that the LORD God of their fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, hath appeared unto thee.

Exodus 6

8 And I will bring you in unto the land, concerning the which I did swear to give it to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob; and I will give it you for an heritage I am the LORD.

Exodus 1

5 And it shall be when the LORD shall bring thee into the land of the Canaanites, and the Hittites, and the Amorites, and the Hivites, and the Jebusites, which he sware unto thy fathers to give thee, a land flowing with milk and honey, that thou shalt keep this service in this month.

Ezekiel 47

1 Thus saith the Lord GOD; This shall be the border, whereby ye shall inherit the land according to the twelve tribes of Israel Joseph shall have two portions.

14 And ye shall inherit it, one as well as another concerning the which I lifted up mine hand to give it unto your fathers and this land shall fall unto you for inheritance.

15 And this shall be the border of the land toward the north side, from the great sea, the way of Hethlon, as men go to Zedad;

16 Hamath, Berothah, Sibraim, which is between the border of Damascus and the border of Hamath; Hazarhatticon, which is by the coast of Hauran.

17 And the border from the sea shall be Hazarenan, the border of Damascus, and the north northward, and the border of Hamath. And this is the north side.

18 And the east side ye shall measure from Hauran, and from Damascus, and from Gilead, and from the land of Israel by Jordan, from the border unto the east sea. And this is the east side.

1 And the south side southward, from Tamar even to the waters of strife in Kadesh, the river to the great sea. And this is the south side southward.

0 The west side also shall be the great sea from the border, till a man come over against Hamath. This is the west side.

1 So shall ye divide this land unto you according to the tribes of Israel.

And it shall come to pass, that ye shall divide it by lot for an inheritance unto you, and to the strangers that sojourn among you, which shall beget children among you and they shall be unto you as born in the country among the children of Israel; they shall have inheritance with you among the tribes of Israel.

And it shall come to pass, that in what tribe the stranger sojourneth, there shall ye give him his inheritance, saith the Lord GOD.

Ezekiel 48

1 Now these are the names of the tribes. From the north end to the coast of the way of Hethlon, as one goeth to Hamath, Hazarenan, the border of Damascus

Ezekiel 48

northward, to the coast of Hamath; for these are his sides east and west; a portion for Dan.

And by the border of Dan, from the east side unto the west side, a portion for Asher.

And by the border of Asher, from the east side even unto the west side, a portion for Naphtali.

4 And by the border of Naphtali, from the east side unto the west side, a portion for Manasseh.

5 And by the border of Manasseh, from the east side unto the west side, a portion for Ephraim.

6 And by the border of Ephraim, from the east side even unto the west side, a portion for Reuben.

7 And by the border of Reuben, from the east side unto the west side, a portion for Judah.

8 And by the border of Judah, from the east side unto the west side, shall be the offering which ye shall offer of five and twenty thousand reeds in breadth, and in length as one of the other parts, from the east side unto the west side and the sanctuary shall be in the midst of it.

The oblation that ye shall offer unto the LORD shall be of five and twenty thousand in length, and of ten thousand in breadth.

10 And for them, even for the priests, shall be this holy oblation; toward the north five and twenty thousand in length, and toward the west ten thousand in breadth, and toward the east ten thousand in breadth, and toward the south five and twenty thousand in length and the sanctuary of the LORD shall be in the midst thereof.

11 It shall be for the priests that are sanctified of the sons of Zadok; which have kept my charge, which went not astray when the children of Israel went astray, as the Levites went astray.

1 And this oblation of the land that is offered shall be unto them a thing most holy by the border of the Levites.

1 And over against the border of the priests the Levites shall have five and twenty thousand in length, and ten thousand in breadth all the length shall be five and twenty thousand, and the breadth ten thousand.

14 And they shall not sell of it, neither exchange, nor alienate the firstfruits of the land for it is holy unto the LORD.

15 And the five thousand, that are left in the breadth over against the five and twenty thousand, shall be a profane place for the city, for dwelling, and for suburbs and the city shall be in the midst thereof.

16 And these shall be the measures thereof; the north side four thousand and five hundred, and the south side four thousand and five hundred, and on the east side four thousand and five hundred, and the west side four thousand and five hundred.

17 And the suburbs of the city shall be toward the north two hundred and fifty, and toward the south two hundred and fifty, and toward the east two hundred

Ezekiel 48

and fifty, and toward the west two hundred and fifty.

18 And the residue in length over against the oblation of the holy portion shall be ten thousand eastward, and ten thousand westward and it shall be over against the oblation of the holy portion; and the increase thereof shall be for food unto them that serve the city.

1 And they that serve the city shall serve it out of all the tribes of Israel.

0 All the oblation shall be five and twenty thousand by five and twenty thousand ye shall offer the holy oblation foursquare, with the possession of the city.

1 And the residue shall be for the prince, on the one side and on the other of the holy oblation, and of the possession of the city, over against the five and twenty thousand of the oblation toward the east border, and westward over against the five and twenty thousand toward the west border, over against the portions for the prince and it shall be the holy oblation; and the sanctuary of the house shall be in the midst thereof.

Moreover from the possession of the Levites, and from the possession of the city, being in the midst of that which is the princes, between the border of Judah and the border of Benjamin, shall be for the prince.

As for the rest of the tribes, from the east side unto the west side, Benjamin shall have a portion.

4 And by the border of Benjamin, from the east side unto the west side, Simeon shall have a portion.

5 And by the border of Simeon, from the east side unto the west side, Issachar a portion.

6 And by the border of Issachar, from the east side unto the west side, Zebulun a portion.

7 And by the border of Zebulun, from the east side unto the west side, Gad a portion.

8 And by the border of Gad, at the south side southward, the border shall be even from Tamar unto the waters of strife in Kadesh, and to the river toward the great sea.

This is the land which ye shall divide by lot unto the tribes of Israel for inheritance, and these are their portions, saith the Lord GOD.

0 And these are the goings out of the city on the north side, four thousand and five hundred measures.

1 And the gates of the city shall be after the names of the tribes of Israel three gates northward; one gate of Reuben, one gate of Judah, one gate of Levi.

And at the east side four thousand and five hundred and three gates; and one gate of Joseph, one gate of Benjamin, one gate of Dan.

And at the south side four thousand and five hundred measures and three gates; one gate of Simeon, one gate of Issachar, one gate of Zebulun.

4 At the west side four thousand and five hundred, with their three gates; one gate of Gad, one gate of Asher, one gate of Naphtali.

Ezekiel 48

5 It was round about eighteen thousand measures and the name of the city from that day shall be, The LORD is there.

A Vehicle of Promise

Genesis 8

14 And thy seed shall be as the dust of the earth, and thou shalt spread abroad to the west, and to the east, and to the north, and to the south and in thee and in thy seed shall all the families of the earth be blessed.

Leviticus 6

14 But if ye will not hearken unto me, and will not do all these commandments;

15 And if ye shall despise my statutes, or if your soul abhor my judgments, so that ye will not do all my commandments, but that ye break my covenant

16 I also will do this unto you; I will even appoint over you terror, consumption, and the burning ague, that shall consume the eyes, and cause sorrow of heart and ye shall sow your seed in vain, for your enemies shall eat it.

17 And I will set my face against you, and ye shall be slain before your enemies they that hate you shall reign over you; and ye shall flee when none pursueth you.

18 And if ye will not yet for all this hearken unto me, then I will punish you seven times more for your sins.

1 And I will break the pride of your power; and I will make your heaven as iron, and your earth as brass

0 And your strength shall be spent in vain for your land shall not yield her increase, neither shall the trees of the land yield their fruits.

1 And if ye walk contrary unto me, and will not hearken unto me; I will bring seven times more plagues upon you according to your sins.

I will also send wild beasts among you, which shall rob you of your children, and destroy your cattle, and make you few in number; and your high ways shall be desolate.

And if ye will not be reformed by me by these things, but will walk contrary unto me;

4 Then will I also walk contrary unto you, and will punish you yet seven times for your sins.

5 And I will bring a sword upon you, that shall avenge the quarrel of my covenant and when ye are gathered together within your cities, I will send the pestilence among you; and ye shall be delivered into the hand of the enemy.

6 And when I have broken the staff of your bread, ten women shall bake your bread in one oven, and they shall deliver you your bread again by weight and ye shall eat, and not be satisfied.

Leviticus 6

7 And if ye will not for all this hearken unto me, but walk contrary unto me;

8 Then I will walk contrary unto you also in fury; and I, even I, will chastise you seven times for your sins.

Deuteronomy 8

58 If thou wilt not observe to do all the words of this law that are written in this book, that thou mayest fear this glorious and fearful name, THE LORD THY GOD;

5 Then the LORD will make thy plagues wonderful, and the plagues of thy seed, even great plagues, and of long continuance, and sore sicknesses, and of long continuance.

60 Moreover he will bring upon thee all the diseases of Egypt, which thou wast afraid of; and they shall cleave unto thee.

61 Also every sickness, and every plague, which is not written in the book of this law, them will the LORD bring upon thee, until thou be destroyed.

6 And ye shall be left few in number, whereas ye were as the stars of heaven for multitude; because thou wouldest not obey the voice of the LORD thy God.

6 And it shall come to pass, that as the LORD rejoiced over you to do you good, and to multiply you; so the LORD will rejoice over you to destroy you, and to bring you to nought; and ye shall be plucked from off the land whither thou goest to possess it.

Leviticus 1

4 But the stranger that dwelleth with you shall be unto you as one born among you, and thou shalt love him as thyself; for ye were strangers in the land of Egypt I am the LORD your God.

Joshua

1 And Joshua the son of Nun sent out of Shittim two men to spy secretly, saying, Go view the land, even Jericho. And they went, and came into an harlots house, named Rahab, and lodged there.

And it was told the king of Jericho, saying, Behold, there came men in hither to night of the children of Israel to search out the country.

And the king of Jericho sent unto Rahab, saying, Bring forth the men that are come to thee, which are entered into thine house for they be come to search out all the country.

4 And the woman took the two men, and hid them, and said thus, There came men unto me, but I wist not whence they were

5 And it came to pass about the time of shutting of the gate, when it was dark, that the men went out whither the men went I wot not pursue after them quickly; for ye shall overtake them.

6 But she had brought them up to the roof of the house, and hid them with the stalks of flax, which she had laid in order upon the roof.

7 And the men pursued after them the way to Jordan unto the fords and as soon as they which pursued after them were gone out, they shut the gate.

Joshua

8 And before they were laid down, she came up unto them upon the roof;

And she said unto the men, I know that the LORD hath given you the land, and that your terror is fallen upon us, and that all the inhabitants of the land faint because of you.

10 For we have heard how the LORD dried up the water of the Red sea for you, when ye came out of Egypt; and what ye did unto the two kings of the Amorites, that were on the other side Jordan, Sihon and Og, whom ye utterly destroyed.

11 And as soon as we had heard these things, our hearts did melt, neither did there remain any more courage in any man, because of you for the LORD your God, he is God in heaven above, and in earth beneath.

1 Now therefore, I pray you, swear unto me by the LORD, since I have shewed you kindness, that ye will also shew kindness unto my fathers house, and give me a true token

1 And that ye will save alive my father, and my mother, and my brethren, and my sisters, and all that they have, and deliver our lives from death.

14 And the men answered her, Our life for yours, if ye utter not this our business. And it shall be, when the LORD hath given us the land, that we will deal kindly and truly with thee.

15 Then she let them down by a cord through the window for her house was upon the town wall, and she dwelt upon the wall.

16 And she said unto them, Get you to the mountain, lest the pursuers meet you; and hide yourselves there three days, until the pursuers be returned and afterward may ye go your way.

17 And the men said unto her, We will be blameless of this thine oath which thou hast made us swear.

18 Behold, when we come into the land, thou shalt bind this line of scarlet thread in the window which thou didst let us down by and thou shalt bring thy father, and thy mother, and thy brethren, and all thy fathers household, home unto thee.

1 And it shall be, that whosoever shall go out of the doors of thy house into the street, his blood shall be upon his head, and we will be guiltless and whosoever shall be with thee in the house, his blood shall be on our head, if any hand be upon him.

0 And if thou utter this our business, then we will be quit of thine oath which thou hast made us to swear.

1 And she said, According unto your words, so be it. And she sent them away, and they departed and she bound the scarlet line in the window.

And they went, and came unto the mountain, and abode there three days, until the pursuers were returned and the pursuers sought them throughout all the way, but found them not.

So the two men returned, and descended from the mountain, and passed over, and came to Joshua the son of Nun, and told him all things that befell them

Joshua

4 And they said unto Joshua, Truly the LORD hath delivered into our hands all the land; for even all the inhabitants of the country do faint because of us.

Ruth 1

1 Now it came to pass in the days when the judges ruled, that there was a famine in the land. And a certain man of Bethlehemjudah went to sojourn in the country of Moab, he, and his wife, and his two sons.

And the name of the man was Elimelech, and the name of his wife Naomi, and the name of his two sons Mahlon and Chilion, Ephrathites of Bethlehemjudah. And they came into the country of Moab, and continued there.

And Elimelech Naomis husband died; and she was left, and her two sons.

4 And they took them wives of the women of Moab; the name of the one was Orpah, and the name of the other Ruth and they dwelled there about ten years.

5 And Mahlon and Chilion died also both of them; and the woman was left of her two sons and her husband.

6 Then she arose with her daughters in law, that she might return from the country of Moab for she had heard in the country of Moab how that the LORD had visited his people in giving them bread.

7 Wherefore she went forth out of the place where she was, and her two daughters in law with her; and they went on the way to return unto the land of Judah.

8 And Naomi said unto her two daughters in law, Go, return each to her mothers house the LORD deal kindly with you, as ye have dealt with the dead, and with me.

The LORD grant you that ye may find rest, each of you in the house of her husband. Then she kissed them; and they lifted up their voice, and wept.

10 And they said unto her, Surely we will return with thee unto thy people.

11 And Naomi said, Turn again, my daughters why will ye go with me? are there yet any more sons in my womb, that they may be your husbands?

1 Turn again, my daughters, go your way; for I am too old to have an husband. If I should say, I have hope, if I should have an husband also to night, and should also bear sons;

1 Would ye tarry for them till they were grown? would ye stay for them from having husbands? nay, my daughters; for it grieveth me much for your sakes that the hand of the LORD is gone out against me.

14 And they lifted up their voice, and wept again and Orpah kissed her mother in law; but Ruth clave unto her.

15 And she said, Behold, thy sister in law is gone back unto her people, and unto her gods return thou after thy sister in law.

16 And Ruth said, Intreat me not to leave thee, or to return from following after thee for whither thou goest, I will go; and where thou lodgest, I will lodge thy people shall be my people, and thy God my God

Ruth 1

17 Where thou diest, will I die, and there will I be buried the LORD do so to me, and more also, if ought but death part thee and me.

18 When she saw that she was stedfastly minded to go with her, then she left speaking unto her.

1 So they two went until they came to Bethlehem. And it came to pass, when they were come to Bethlehem, that all the city was moved about them, and they said, Is this Naomi?

0 And she said unto them, Call me not Naomi, call me Mara for the Almighty hath dealt very bitterly with me.

1 I went out full and the LORD hath brought me home again empty why then call ye me Naomi, seeing the LORD hath testified against me, and the Almighty hath afflicted me?

So Naomi returned, and Ruth the Moabitess, her daughter in law, with her, which returned out of the country of Moab and they came to Bethlehem in the beginning of barley harvest.

Esther 8

17 And in every province, and in every city, whithersoever the kings commandment and his decree came, the Jews had joy and gladness, a feast and a good day. And many of the people of the land became Jews; for the fear of the Jews fell upon them.

Ezekiel 47

And it shall come to pass, that ye shall divide it by lot for an inheritance unto you, and to the strangers that sojourn among you, which shall beget children among you and they shall be unto you as born in the country among the children of Israel; they shall have inheritance with you among the tribes of Israel.

And it shall come to pass, that in what tribe the stranger sojourneth, there shall ye give him his inheritance, saith the Lord GOD.

Zephaniah

1 Behold, at that time I will undo all that afflict thee and I will save her that halteth, and gather her that was driven out; and I will get them praise and fame in every land where they have been put to shame.

0 At that time will I bring you again, even in the time that I gather you for I will make you a name and a praise among all people of the earth, when I turn back your captivity before your eyes, saith the LORD.

A Child of Promise

Genesis

8 And Abraham said, My son, God will provide himself a lamb for a burnt offering so they went both of them together.

1 And Abraham lifted up his eyes, and looked, and behold behind him a ram caught in a thicket by his horns and Abraham went and took the ram, and offered him up for a burnt offering in the stead of his son.

14 And Abraham called the name of that place Jehovahjireh as it is said to this day, In the mount of the LORD it shall be seen.

Hebrews 11

1 Accounting that God was able to raise him up, even from the dead; from whence also he received him in a figure.

A Nation Restored

Romans 11

5 Even so then at this present time also there is a remnant according to the election of grace.

6 And if by grace, then is it no more of works otherwise grace is no more grace. But if it be of works, then it is no more grace otherwise work is no more work.

Romans 11

7 What then? Israel hath not obtained that which he seeketh for; but the election hath obtained it, and the rest were blinded.

5 For I would not, brethren, that ye should be ignorant of this mystery, lest ye should be wise in your own conceits; that blindness in part is happened to Israel, until the fulness of the Gentiles be come in.

Jeremiah 5

11 And this whole land shall be a desolation, and an astonishment; and these nations shall serve the king of Babylon seventy years.

Daniel

4 Seventy weeks are determined upon thy people and upon thy holy city, to finish the transgression, and to make an end of sins, and to make reconciliation for iniquity, and to bring in everlasting righteousness, and to seal up the vision and prophecy, and to anoint the most Holy.

Romans 11

17 And if some of the branches be broken off, and thou, being a wild olive tree, wert grafted in among them, and with them partakest of the root and fatness of the olive tree;

And they also, if they abide not still in unbelief, shall be grafted in for God is able to graff them in again.

5 For I would not, brethren, that ye should be ignorant of this mystery, lest ye should be wise in your own conceits; that blindness in part is happened to Israel, until the fulness of the Gentiles be come in.

Romans 11

11 I say then, Have they stumbled that they should fall? God forbid but rather through their fall salvation is come unto the Gentiles, for to provoke them to jealousy.

1 Now if the fall of them be the riches of the world, and the diminishing of them the riches of the Gentiles; how much more their fulness?

1 For I speak to you Gentiles, inasmuch as I am the apostle of the Gentiles, I magnify mine office

14 If by any means I may provoke to emulation them which are my flesh, and might save some of them.

15 For if the casting away of them be the reconciling of the world, what shall the receiving of them be, but life from the dead?

16 For if the firstfruit be holy, the lump is also holy and if the root be holy, so are the branches.

17 And if some of the branches be broken off, and thou, being a wild olive tree, wert grafted in among them, and with them partakest of the root and fatness of the olive tree;

18 Boast not against the branches. But if thou boast, thou bearest not the root, but the root thee.

1 Thou wilt say then, The branches were broken off, that I might be grafted in.

0 Well; because of unbelief they were broken off, and thou standest by faith. Be not highminded, but fear

1 For if God spared not the natural branches, take heed lest he also spare not thee.

Behold therefore the goodness and severity of God on them which fell, severity; but toward thee, goodness, if thou continue in his goodness otherwise thou also shalt be cut off.

And they also, if they abide not still in unbelief, shall be grafted in for God is able to graff them in again.

4 For if thou wert cut out of the olive tree which is wild by nature, and wert grafted contrary to nature into a good olive tree how much more shall these, which be the natural branches, be grafted into their own olive tree?

5 For I would not, brethren, that ye should be ignorant of this mystery, lest ye should be wise in your own conceits; that blindness in part is happened to Israel,

Romans 11

until the fulness of the Gentiles be come in.

6 And so all Israel shall be saved as it is written, There shall come out of Sion the Deliverer, and shall turn away ungodliness from Jacob

7 For this is my covenant unto them, when I shall take away their sins.

8 As concerning the gospel, they are enemies for your sakes but as touching the election, they are beloved for the fathers sakes.

For the gifts and calling of God are without repentance.

0 For as ye in times past have not believed God, yet have now obtained mercy through their unbelief

1 Even so have these also now not believed, that through your mercy they also may obtain mercy.

For God hath concluded them all in unbelief, that he might have mercy upon all.

Exodus 1

4 Ye have seen what I did unto the Egyptians, and how I bare you on eagles wings, and brought you unto myself.

Jeremiah 1

1 Behold, the days come, saith the LORD, that I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel, and with the house of Judah

Not according to the covenant that I made with their fathers in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; which my covenant they brake, although I was an husband unto them, saith the LORD

But this shall be the covenant that I will make with the house of Israel; After those days, saith the LORD, I will put my law in their inward parts, and write it in their hearts; and will be their God, and they shall be my people.

4 And they shall teach no more every man his neighbour, and every man his brother, saying, Know the LORD for they shall all know me, from the least of them unto the greatest of them, saith the LORD for I will forgive their iniquity, and I will remember their sin no more.

Ezekiel 6

5 Then will I sprinkle clean water upon you, and ye shall be clean from all your filthiness, and from all your idols, will I cleanse you.

6 A new heart also will I give you, and a new spirit will I put within you and I will take away the stony heart out of your flesh, and I will give you an heart of flesh.

7 And I will put my spirit within you, and cause you to walk in my statutes, and ye shall keep my judgments, and do them.

Ezekiel 6

4 For I will take you from among the heathen, and gather you out of all countries, and will bring you into your own land.

5 Then will I sprinkle clean water upon you, and ye shall be clean from all your filthiness, and from all your idols, will I cleanse you.

Ezekiel 7

8 And when I beheld, lo, the sinews and the flesh came up upon them, and the skin covered them above but there was no breath in them.

14 And shall put my spirit in you, and ye shall live, and I shall place you in your own land then shall ye know that I the LORD have spoken it, and performed it, saith the LORD.

Zechariah 1

10 And I will pour upon the house of David, and upon the inhabitants of Jerusalem, the spirit of grace and of supplications and they shall look upon me whom they have pierced, and they shall mourn for him, as one mourneth for his only son, and shall be in bitterness for him, as one that is in bitterness for his firstborn.

Ezekiel 6

1 Then shall ye remember your own evil ways, and your doings that were not good, and shall loathe yourselves in your own sight for your iniquities and for your abominations.

Notes

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