Importance of violence in a Separate Peace

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World War II was a period of violence across globe, and many works of literature of the time reflect this. While works such as All Quite on the Western Front and The Soldier Spies focus on the violence of the war itself, other novels of the period are more about the home life during the war, and have little to do with the hostility in the war. And, while violence does exist in the book A Separate Peace by John Knowles, the scenes contribute to the overall meaning and themes of the story.

There are three essential scenes of violence in the story, each of which helps to emphasize the growth of the main character Gene Forrester throughout his life at Devon school, a school very similar to one Phillips Exeter Academy that Knowles attended as a youth.

The first scene of violence, which happens to be the first of two climaxes, occurs when Gene shakes the limb that he and Finny are standing on, causing Finny to fall to the ground, shattering his leg. The fall seemed to be an accident to anyone who did not know what truly happened. Gene was jealous of Finny's athletic ability, and he feared that Finny was trying to sabotage his academic career, so, in a brief moment; Gene was able to sabotage Finny's athleticism in return.

This scene helps in demonstrating the growth of the boys by emphasizing the immaturity that is also shown through such things as sarcasm, and then, after the fall, the almost immediate growth that Gene experiences. While the jealousy that Gene experienced was a juvenile emotion in itself, the fact that the boys held the Super Secret Society was also fairly immature, since there was a dreadfully real chance of injury or death. Both of these ended after the accident, also this marked the end of Gene's use of sarcasm, which Gene states is a weak, and therefore adolescent, form of communication.

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Later, Gene gets into a fight with the senior crew manager Cliff Quackenbush over an argument they have over Gene's purpose for wanting to be the assistant senior crew manager, a position normally held by a junior in hopes of taking Cliff's position the next year. The fight breaks out after Cliff refers to Gene as a "maimed son-of-a-bitch" (71) thinking that Gene's reasoning for being assistant was because of inability to play another sport.

This scene shows a large growth in maturity from that of the scene of the fall in at least the important aspects to the meaning. The reason for Gene's interest in a position as crew manager came out of sorrow for Finny. He had caused Phineas to lose all chances of playing sports, all from a little paranoia, so therefore he felt that he too should give up sports. He felt he had become a part of Finny. That is why he was so distraught over the comment of being maimed, Finny actually was maimed, and so Gene was taking up for Finny's unfortunate situation.

The final scene of violence came when Gene takes a trip to Vermont to visit Leper who has defected from the army. While talking, Leper reveals that he knows the truth about Finny's fall. From his position, Leper could easily see that Gene had intentionally shaken the branch, causing Finny to fall. Due to his current lack of acceptance of the truth, Gene gets agitated by these statements and ends up knocking over the chair that Leper is sitting in.

This last scene of violence indicates that, while he would not accept it until after Phineas' death, Gene feels terrible over the incident that he put Finny through. The scene contains a struggle between Gene's maturity and immaturity, something that almost every teen his age goes through. While Gene's maturity shows through in his countenance, his anger and frustration show that he is apologetic for the action he committed at the time, his immature reaction of pushing Leper over in his chair show that he has not fully matured in his life yet.

While violence in the book A Separate Peace by John Knowles is often harsh and seemingly pointless, every scene of brutality to any degree helps the reader in understanding the whole of the story. Each scene in the book was carefully planned for the development and execution of the novel's theme, plot and morals.

Bibliography

· Knowles, John. A Separate Peace. New York Bantam. 175.

· Parker, Peter. "A Readers Guide to Twentieth Century Writers." New York Oxford University Press. 16.

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Causes of Teenage Suicides

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"Every ninety minutes a teenager somewhere in America kills himself." This figure is very astonishing and overwhelming, when taken the time to think about. Experts say there are many warning signs to watch for. Among them are prolonged depression, chronic anger, aggression/frustration, threats or mentions of suicide, and a traumatic loss of someone close. If you as a friend notice these signs, you should immediately offer some verbal support to these people.

This pain could be deprived from abuse, problems at home, pressures, exams, money, work, relationships and/or chronic addictions such as drugs and/or alcohol. These series of events are impossibilities or failures, such as problems at home or school, that feel overwhelming to the person. The next phase is when the person begins feeling emotionally broken; as if there is no one there that understands what it is they're feeling and going through. This leads to isolation with their thought and a problem, which is unhealthy because it gives them time to ponder over all of their worries. Eventually, if no one notices this problem, it could lead to suicide.

One may ask what's going on in the head of a suicidal teen when he/she decides to kill himself? They may be thinking of pressures such as the wide spread of alcohol and other drugs unheard of forty or fifty years ago. These people usually just want to "fit in" or be part of "the group". The worst frame of mind for and attempted suicide is when all the individuals problems seem to come crashing down on them all at once. This is when they need the most support and guidance from their loved ones. A sign that someone cares and wants to understand their feelings and emotions can be all it takes to decide the difference between life and death.

Often attempts of suicide are a cry for help of attention. Not all victims are meant to kill themselves. People attempting this tend to have low self-esteem. Counseling, teen information lines, clinics, and doctors are able to reduce the threat to the person seeking help. A lot of times after prolonged treatments; these people are placed in a psychiatric ward or institution. Offering non-judgmental support, being a good listener, and contributing your time are all positive ways for a parent or friend counteract suicidal thoughts.

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Thus it is apparent that suicide is a serious and dangerous threat to teens that feel under pressured and emotionally stressed. Counseling is a very effective way to minimize this threat. By understanding the early warning signs given by suicidal individuals, more adolescents may be given a chance to live a long, safe life.

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Mental Illness & Substance Abuse

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Mental Illness & Substance Abuse

A look at the numbers shows that mental illness and substance abuse are becoming one of the biggest problems in the world. Mental illness concerns much more than just "crazy people" and "lunatics." The common misconception that mental illness is controllable by the affected person is not true. For most, mental illness is caused by chemical imbalances in the brain and can only be treated with medicine.

When 18 million Americans suffer from a mood disorder, and 0 million have a form of anxiety disorder, it makes one think that this problem would at least be more commonly known. One of the biggest problems with mental illness is that it is totally up to the affected person to seek professional help. These people generally have chronic, inflexible personality patterns which make them not want to seek treatment. For the ones that do seek treatment they have to deal with the stigma attached to mental illness as well as the cost of healthcare because most insurance doesn't cover mental health. This in itself is a travesty for the mere fact that the federal government knows this is a growing problem in America and still isn't doing enough to help.

Substance abuse is considered a form of mental illness. Abuse is defined as use that causes clinically important distress in a 1 month period. This holds true for every drug except caffeine. It is believed that by the year 00, cigarettes will be the number one killer in America, killing one of every six people in America. That's because nine of ten people that smoke will become addicted to them. Although it is said that 50 to 60% of alcoholism is genetic, it doesn't make the fact that 8.1 million Americans are alcoholics alright. 1.7 million Americans are considered problem drinkers. This costs the U.S. 76 million dollars in lost productivity per year. This again is a major problem in America.

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The solution is almost certainly in the hands of the government and insurance agencies. This would be in the form of financial support to those that are in need. This is more commonly known as parity. It is predicted that a family premium would only raise .5% for parity (http//www.mentalhealth.org/publications/allpubs/Mc-80/prtych4.asp). For such a large and continually growing problem the .5% seems worth it. Prevention and treatment of such problems would certainly cause all the numbers to decrease, as well as make America a generally more healthy country.

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Private Prisons

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Private Prisons

Over the past decade, private prisons have boomed. Private corporations have taken a big interest in the incarceration business. According to Phil Smith's article "Private Prisons Profits of Crime," where there are people detained there are profits to be made. Corporations now control 1,00 beds for U.S. inmates, up at least eightfold since 10, based on statistics published in Holly Johnson's article called " Prisons of Profit Turning a Buck on America's Incarceration Frenzy." The reason is simple Anti-drug laws and stiffer mandatory sentences are pushing the prison population above two million. Governments are strapped for capital to build new cells, which leads them to turn to profit prisons seem to offer plenty of cells at below- market prices. If it could not be done cheaper than the government does it, then we wouldnt be in business now, says Brian Gardner, warden of the CCA prison in Youngstown. We believe in giving the taxpayer the best deal.

Private Prisons will find a way to make a profit on prisoners, even if they spend their entire time there in solitary confinement. This is done by using prison labor. Well known companies such as Microsoft, Victoria's Secret, TWA and Starbucks have all participated in using prisoners for labor. Inmates are paid minimal wages for their labor, increasing these company's' profit margins. This idea of making a profit seems like it has always been the case, even when private prisons hadn't been officially established.

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The idea of Private prisons dates back to slavery days, where prisoners were worked from dust to dawn will little pay if any. We all remember the days of lease and contract lease systems, where prisoners were leased by business owners from the state facilities, to work for them while serving time.

Although the principle and the ideas seem to be the same, the first official prison was said to have been established by Ronald Reagan former United States President, in 17, who at the time was governor of the state of California, according to Holly Johnson. For the most part private prisons held illegal immigrants during that time. But as the "Drug War" took over America, the prison population grew drastically, leading to an increase. According to the "Private Prisons article by Phil Smith, in the past five years alone, the number of private prisons has jumped 4 percent. They now house up to 100,000 of Americas 1.8 million inmates

A majority of these private facilities are heavily invested in on the Wall Street Market and the rest of the American Markets. Some of the top corporations include the CCA (Corrections Corporation of America) and Wackenhut. These private facilities claim can save taxpayers 15% of their tax dollars, normal paid to the state prisons.

The CCA was the first private corrections company in America. Since it's beginning in 18, when it was founded by investors of Kentucky Fried Chicken, it has grown to become the largest corrections company in the country according to Phil Smith's article. Its revenues are completely dependent on its private imprisonment. The CCA has steadily become the leader in the industry, with 1 detention facilities in the U.K. and Australia, housing more than 6,000 prisoners. Its profits are said to be up by 50 percent from its 11 end of the year figures, as cited by Phil Smith in his "Private Prison" article.

Wackenhut the second industry leader in private prisons was founded by a former FBI official by the name of George Wackenhut in the year of 154. Wackenhut remains to be one of the largest and well known, as well as the one of the most diversified leaders. Wackenhut started of as a small private well-connected security firm and has grown to be a global security conglomerate with earnings of $60. million in 00 according to the "Private Prison" article. It currently operates in five states, with 11 facilities, housing about 5,500 prisoners as quoted in the same article. Wackenhut also maintains facilities outside of the United States, in countries such as Australia, South America and Europe.

These industry leaders seem to do the government a favor by helping out with our prison system. While there seem to be many advantages to having a private prison system over a state prison system, there are also many disadvantages.

One of the advantages might include the cost reduction in the whole process of incarcerations by prisons. Private industries claim they can get the job done cheaper than the state, but whether they can get it done better is the question. Most companies end up cutting their costs in areas like programs for the inmates, training and pay for their employees, and staff, also lowering inmate living conditions. This leads to high turn over rates. It is a fact that security personnel who isn't paid sufficiently with some or no benefits and pension plans, is just not willing to risk his/her life to break up a fight for instance. Insufficient training by the employees in these private prisons leads to careless mistakes. Cuts in Staff Training has led to incidents such as and inmate walking out the front door wearing a guard's uniform, officers torturing inmates and inmates killing each other, according to the article "Prison Privatization" by Alex Friedman. Private prison guards are also said to be more susceptible to corruption. They do not get compensated well enough for the job they are performing, don't hold the same authority as a state guard would, and don't have the proper training making them more vulnerable to manipulation by inmates.

The main factor becomes profit for the company. Therefore rehabilitation becomes a failure. Inmates are no longer looked as people but as money profit machines. The longer they are kept at the facilities, the more money they will bring in, which gives these industries more reason to keep inmates as long as they possibly can. As the private sector becomes more involved in the operation of these facilities, increased pressure will be put on legislature to build more of these prisons, therefore increasing the opportunity for profit. This all will lead to even longer sentencing, fewer paroles and tougher parole oversights. Again we have started to warehouse people, not really keeping in my rehabilitation for these inmates, but seeing the flashing dollar sign.

Another disadvantage will be the monitoring of these private facilities. It will become much more difficult to screen. These facilities do not keep any public records, laws, or Public Meeting Acts, as state prisons do. Prisoner abuse will become much harder to both identify and prove. Many things out in the open in the state prison system will in the way be corrupt in the private system. There won't be facts or evidence regarding any issues, since hardly any records are kept.

These private prison companies have promised to do the job cheaper, but again that does not mean the job will be done better. If anything it seems to be done cheaper but at the cost of these inmates rights and life's. Finally, to many people, the idea of private prisons is simply repugnant in itself. Like the profitable funeral business, the business of prison management is seen by many as just plain unacceptable. Rational or not, their senses of making money from such unhappy situations as death or imprisonment, just seems morally wrong.

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The Scarlet Letter

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A woman commits adultery and bears a child out of wedlock. A minister sins against his god and his convictions. A jealousy maddened husband seeks his revenge.

Sounds like a soap opera, right? But its not. Its one of literatures greatest classics, The Scarlet Letter, by Nathaniel Hawthorne. The female lead is Hester Prynne, sent ahead from Amersterdam by her husband to settle in a new town. As time passes and her husband does not appear, it is assumed that he has died in the harsh environment of late seventeenth century New England.

Hesters name comes to mean something entirely different to the Puritan townspeople when she is found to be with child and consequently gives birth to a daughter, named Pearl. Hester refuses to reveal the name of the babys father, choosing instead to take her punishment alone. Her punishment is simple she stands on a scaffold before the condemning eyes of the whole town for three hours, and is sentenced by the town fathers to wear always on her breast a scarlet A, meant to stand for adultery. It is only by the interference of the towns minister, Reverend Dimmesdale, and the assumed fact of her husbands death, which saves Hester from the gallows.

On the day of Hesters release, a stranger comes to the town, calling himself Roger Chillingworth, a doctor. He examines Hester in her jail cell, and we discover that he was once her husband. He agrees to keep the secret of their marriage, as much for his sake as for hers. He also implores her to tell him who the childs father is. When she refuses, he proclaims that he will make it his purpose to discover for himself the childs origin.

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As the years pass Pearl grows into what Hawthorne calls an elfish child. She seems mischievous and contrary in all things. Also during this time, Roger Chillingworth has attached himself as a doctor and companion to the Reverend Dimmesdale. There is a moment of fright for Hester when she fears the town fathers will take Pearl from her, because they fear that the child will not receive proper religious training with Hester. Through the support of Reverend Dimmesdale, Hester is allowed to retain her child.

While Pearl grows older and more questioning, while Reverend Dimmesdale grows ever sicker and more weak, while Roger Chillingworth grows more twisted and bitter, during all this Hester Prynne gains nearly the status of a saint. Even as they revile her for her sins, the people benefit from her skill with a needle and her willingness to nurse any and all who suffer from ill health. She spends all of her time caring for others, either for the townspeople or for Pearl.

Finally it is revealed that the Reverend Dimmesdale is Pearls father. He has suffered through these years for his transgression, though silently. He and Hester meet in the forest and agree to take a ship across the ocean, to flee forever the shame of New England and start a new life together.

The following day, however, Hester discovers that Roger Chillingworth has secured passage on the same ship, and she knows then that he will never let them be happy. This is also the day that Reverend Dimmesdale is scheduled to give the Election Day sermon, which he does with unprecedented skill. At the end of his sermon, the Reverend seems to weaken substantially, and as he proceeds toward the scaffold of Hesters shame, he calls his lover and daughter to him. They climb the scaffold together, in the eyes of all the townspeople. Here the Reverend reveals to all his sin, and to match the scarlet letter on Hesters chest, he has carved one into his own flesh. Having finally confessed, he dies in Hesters arms.

What follows is all but inconsequential. Chillingworth is denied his revenge by the Reverends disclosure and death, and he dies within the year. Pearl inherited all of his property, and became a rich young girl. She and Hester disappeared. Pearl is never again seen in New England, but many years later an old woman bearing a scarlet letter returned to the town, to resume her good works until the time of her death.

Hawthorne brings us this tale with much intent. He attempts to show us that we dont always see what we think we see. One who is held in high public regard may have the darkest secrets of all, and those held in contempt may have the hearts of saints. No man is fit to judge anothers heart, or to judge his sins. And above all, Hawthorne believes that it is best to bring your shame honestly into the open, to be seen and atoned for. Through seven years of silent suffering the Reverend Dimmesdale show us that no man can be judged as harshly as he judges himself.

Please note that this sample paper on The Scarlet Letter is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on The Scarlet Letter, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on The Scarlet Letter will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Leadership

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Leadership

After conducting some research on leadership, many questions have been brought to my attention. Some questions include the following What is a leader? Are leaders made or born? What is the difference between leadership and management? What are the theories concerning leadership? Answers to these questions, and many others, should become clear enough at the end of this research. Schermerhorn defines leadership as "a special case of interpersonal influence that gets an individual or group to do what the leader wants done" (87). On the other hand, Kathryn Bartol defines leadership as "the process of influencing others to achieve organizational goals" (415). After analyzing the two quotes, I ask myself "What is leadership?" I believe that leadership is the process of directing and guiding the behaviors of others in the appropriate directions to accomplish the goals and missions previously set. Schermerhorn and Bartol highlight the same issue, however although they are extremely similar, they address it in different words. A leader is a person who is ambitious, determined, focused, and motivated to achieve the organizational goals. The leader must have a clear understanding of individual differences in order to effectively utilize and appreciate the different contributions of different individuals. In addition, a leader must also be aware of the importance of communication between the leader and the followers; and of the communication among the followers themselves. Now however we may start to address the role management, and what role does it play in this equation? Which in turn causes the rise of the question, what is the difference between leadership and management? Leadership vs. Management Kathryn Bartol describes management as "the process of achieving organizational goals by engaging in the four major functions of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling" (5). On the other hand, the author describes leading as the process of "Influencing others to engage in the work behaviors necessary to reach organizational goals" (7). Therefore, by analyzing Bartol's definition of management, it becomes clear that leading is a management function. Even though there is an interrelation between leadership and management, leaders and managers are not the same. Leaders consider their goals personal, and they motivate others by creating ambitious goals. Job titles and organizational standings are not an issue for leaders, for they search for self-achievement and self-satisfaction through the accomplishment of goals and the sense of power (Georgiades 7). On the other hand, managers do not consider their goals as personal; it is more of a monetary based goal in which they can govern others, and achieve the end result of uniting the members subordinate to them to function in a productive manner. They organize the subordinates and resources in order to achieve the previously determined organizational goals. They also relate to other people according to job titles and organizational standings, therefore search for high organizational standings (Georgiades 7). In the book "Leadership for Competitive Advantage," the author explains James MacGregor-Burns' comparison of managers and leaders; Burns is the author of Leadership, in which he clearly distinguishes the differences between leaders and managers. The differences that were stated can be summarized as follows Emotional involvement Leaders Managers Emotionally involved with ideals and visions. Involved with tasks and people associated with the tasks. Personal life Work and private life are indistinguishable and merge with each other. Attempt to maintain boundaries seeing a proper time for each. Achieving commitment and accountability Inspire. Hold people accountable by inducing feelings of guilt. Involve people. Use contracts, performance appraisal and key result areas. Value emphasis Concerned with what they are trying to build. How to build their contractual piece. Problems Create problems. Solve them. Planning Long range. Short to medium term. Responses Appreciate contrariness and people who argue. Like people who comform. Relations Engender feelings of lave and hate. Create non-stable relationships. Tend to have more predictable relationships and do not create strong feelings. The author Warren Blank further explains leadership by shaping nine natural laws that make up leadership, and they are as follows (Blank 10) 1. A leader has willing followers-allies. . "Leadership" is a field of interaction a relationship between leaders and followers-allies. . Leadership occurs as an event. 4. Leaders use influence beyond formal authority. 5. Leaders operate outside the boundaries of organizationally defined procedures. 6. Leadership involves risk and uncertainty. 7. Not everyone will follow a leader's initiative. 8. Consciousness information processing capacity creates leadership. . Leadership is a self-referral process; leaders and followers process information from their own subjective, internal frame of reference. The first law of the Blank's "Nine Laws of Leadership" answers a fundamental question; what does it mean to be a leader? To be a leader means to have followers. Even though some critics may argue that leaders possess specific traits or personality dimensions, as discussed later in the research, Warren Blank believes that the basic quality that differentiates leaders from non-leaders is having followers. The second law explains the interaction between the leader and the follower "Followers are allies who join the leader, and together they create the energy that drives the organizations" (Blank 1). Blank describes the third law of leadership as the leader-follower relationship having a beginning, middle, and an end (14). The difference between the leader's use of influence and the manager's influence is the cause. Leaders influence people to gain followers, however, managers use influence to achieve their goals. Blank's fifth natural law explains the boundaries of leadership, for "leadership operates outside the prescribed lines created by organizational rule, regulations, policies, and procedures" (17). This law revolves around the notion that "managers do things right," while "leaders do the right things." I support this argument, for leaders are willing to take the chance of stepping out of bounds for the overall good of the team and the followers. However, managers tend to play by the rules. The sixth natural law of leadership is self-explanatory; it basically states that by "doing the right things" and stepping out of boundaries, leaders face high risks and uncertainties. An important issue that deals with the leader-follower relationship is mentioned in Blank's seventh law of leadership. It is important to note that there is no guaranteed strategy or leadership style to gain followers, for gaining followers is unpredictable. Blank's eighth law of leadership highlights the importance of consciousness. Consciousness "defines how people interpret information and create meaning from it" (1). Through consciousness, leaders turn information into a useful route. The final law of leadership describes how leaders interpret and respond to problems according to their level of consciousness. Blank defines self-referral as "who processes the information" (). Self-referral reveals how important it is for leaders to expand their consciousness so they can gain followers by meeting the follower's level of consciousness. Preparing for Leadership After understanding the differences between leadership and management, it is time to examine how individuals can be geared up to become leaders. Different societies and cultures have different views of leadership. For example, in some nations, leaders are elected, whereas in others leaders inherit the power through royalty. In both cases, and throughout history, the leaders that were chosen or forced upon people always seem at the time to be the ones the people want and need. The author, Kenneth Clark, advocates "Leaders have been developed successfully in all societies largely through learning to be good followers" (11). The first step in becoming a leader is following. By following orders and actions of superiors, subordinates will have an understanding of the importance of dedication, determination, drive, and motivation. Also, by becoming good followers, individuals will be able to understand the importance of leadership, and have a better understanding of what the subordinates will expect of their leader. Due to my past military experience, I agree with the author, and believe that in order to become a great leader, an individual has to be a good follower. In the military environment, where leadership is of great essence, all recruits undergo severe training courses, including many seminars and workshops, in order to create leaders out of them. Even though the setting for preparing a leader can be accomplished, it would not guarantee a successful result. Through the military training camps, recruits are presented with a perfect environment to instill leadership in them, but not every recruit becomes a leader. You can take a horse to the water, but you can't make it drink. Therefore, the only preparation that can be made to create a leader is through creating the perfect environment that would teach the individuals the importance of following the chain-of-command and the responsibilities of motivating and managing subordinates. It is also important for leaders to understand the history of previous leaders in order to have a better appreciation of leadership. Personality Measures of Leaders After having a general understanding of the definition of leadership, and how to prepare a leader, it is time to analyze the different personality measures of leaders. This is an area of high controversy. Many questions have been raised concerning the traits, characteristics, and essential attributes that leaders must possess. Kenneth E. Clark, author of "Measures of Leadership," describes the psychologists' interest in leaders' personalities. Hogan is a psychologist who described a particular set of characteristics that effective leaders possess. He called these personality dimensions the "Big 5." They are as follows (Clark 51) 1. Intelligence high . Adjustment high . Prudence high 4.A. Ambition high 4.B. Sociability variable 5. Likability very high. When analyzing Hogan's "Big 5" personality dimensions, it is evident that the followers must like the leader. If the subordinates did not favor the leader, it would cause difficulty for the leader to impress, influence, and motivate them. Without the subordinates' respect, it is impossible to lead; although some people may argue that leading could be accomplished through the use of force, such as Adolph Hitler or Saddam Hussein. No matter how likely it is that a leadership as such would prevail, it is an immoral and unethical variation on the concept of leadership. Leading by force more often than not tends to have tragic endings for the leaders, and causing bad memories for those surrounding them. Also, Hogan believed that leaders should have high intellectual standards and the ability to adjust to different situations and circumstances. On the other hand, Bengt Karlof's "Conflicts of Leadership," describes six qualities that good leaders must possess, and they are as follows (Karlof ) 1. Helicopterability the ability to see the whole picture in both time and space. . Good Judgement the ability to make sound decisions based on facts, experience and intelligence. . Imaginations the ability to be creative and see opportunities beyond the obvious ones. 4. Analytical ability the deductive intelligence to draw conclusions in a logical sequence from available facts. 5. Efficiency the ability to make decisions if crucial importance to the enterprise with high productivity. 6. Ability to win trust and inspire respect. After Clark and Hogan's two different sets of personality qualities or dimensions that leaders should possess, it is natural to search for specific traits that individuals may have. These traits would help identify possible leaders. Bartol defines the word "traits" as distinctive internal qualities or characteristics of an individual, such as physical characteristics, personality characteristics, skills and abilities, and social factors (417). Some common traits that may distinguish leaders from non-leaders are intelligence, dominance, aggressiveness, and decisiveness. Although individuals that possess such traits would be good candidates to lead, however, I do not believe that individual readiness for leadership is specifically tied to those traits. Some individuals that may have those traits might also lack some important issues, such as the drive and ambition to succeed. Communication skills play a vital role in developing a leader. Without proper communication skills, one would face difficulty in assigning tasks, giving out orders, and receiving feedback from the subordinates. Schermerhorn, co-author of "Organizational Behavior," describes another set of traits that have positive implications for successful leadership (88) · Energy and adjustment or stress tolerance Physical vitality and emotional resilience. · Prosocial power motivation A high need for power exercised primarily for the benefit of others. · Achievement orientation Need for achievement, desire to excel, drive to success, willingness to assume responsibility, concern for task objectives. · Emotional maturity Well adjusted, does not suffer from severe psychological disorders. · Self-confidence General confidence in self and in the ability to perform the job of a leader. · Integrity Behavior consistent with espoused values; honest, ethical, trustworthy. · Perseverance or tenacity Ability to overcome obstacles; strength of will. · Cognitive ability, intelligence, and social intelligence Ability to gather, integrate, and interpret information; intelligence; understanding of social setting. · Task-relevant knowledge Knowledge about the company, industry, and technical aspects. · Flexibility Ability to respond appropriately to changes in the setting. Schermerhorn's set of traits for successful leaders encompasses all the personality traits, qualities, and dimensions that of Clark, Bartol, and Hogan defined. Out of Schermerhorn's set of traits, I personally believe that Achievement orientation is the most essential one. Without the need for achievement, one will not find the motivation and reason to excel. The need for achievement pushes individuals to their extremes, causing them to conquer and surmount any obstacles or difficulties. Georgiades explains Morgan McCall's six demands of leadership that were published in McCall's book "Developing Leadership A Look Ahead." McCall's key requirements for effective leadership are 1. Setting direction. Setting direction is dreaming what might be, gauging its feasibility, and figuring out what has to be done to pull it off. . Alignment. Success in achieving the chosen direction depends on effectively aligning key relationships. . Values. The long-term ability of a leader to influence others hinges on credibility, integrity, and trust. 4. Temperament. A person who is thrown by ambiguity, folds up in the face of criticism, goes down with setbacks, or loses confidence in tight spots will have a tough time as a leader in the stress and change of the next ten years. 5. Self-awareness. A realistic assessment of one's own strength and weaknesses is a prerequisite for understanding other people's perspectives, empowering others, taking risks and absorbing failures. 6. Growth. Because leadership is complex, and because the demands on leaders are constantly changing, leaders themselves must constantly learn, grow and change. (Qtd. In Georgiades 10). The first essential part of leadership expressed in the previous requirements is setting direction. When a leader identifies challenging goals, it is his/her responsibility to communicate the goals set with the followers; and set a structured plan to achieve the goals. By involving subordinates in the decision making process, they increase their loyalty and dedication to both the goals, and leaders. The second key requirement of leadership is identifying allies and enemies. This could be implemented in both military and business environments. In the business environment, it is essential to identify your competitors (enemies) from your coalitions or partnerships (allies). Subordinates would rarely follow a leader who lacks values. An effective leader should lead by example and set the standards for performance, motivation, integrity, and perseverance. The qualities that make up a temperament for leadership are "a manner of thinking, behaving and reacting that helps an individual operate with relative comfort in a job characterized by making decisions under uncertainty, being at the mercy of uncontrollable and capricious forces, and being responsible for large numbers of people, pounds, and resources" (Georgiades 110). It is also essential for leaders to have an understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses. By having self-awareness, leaders can target their strengths and avoid using their weaknesses in setting goals or seizing opportunities. Finally, the importance of a leader's ability to change with changing times is highlighted in McCall's growth requirement. "Leaders who fit a specific situation today will be misfits tomorrow unless they can adapt and change as rapidly as their context." (Georgiades 110). Theories on Leadership Situational Leadership and the Path-Goal Theories are the two main theories concerning leadership. Both Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard developed the situational leadership theory, which is based on the premise that "leaders need to alter their behaviors depending on one major situational factor the readiness of followers" (Bartol 4). The theory indicates that for the leaders to prepare the followers, they should adjust their own leadership styles in accordance with the situation at hand. Robert House's Path-Goal Theory "attempts to explain how leader behavior can positively influence the motivation and job satisfaction of subordinates" (Bartol 41). It focuses on the leader's ability to influence the follower's understanding of the means used in reaching both work and personal goals. Personal Viewpoint After conducting the research and analyzing the different theories, ideas, and contributions made by the different authors, I have crafted out a personal definition of leadership. I believe that leadership is the general process of an individual controlling, motivating, and guiding a group of people in order to accomplish pre-set goals. The leader is an individual that possesses characteristics others may not. These characteristics enable the individual to guide and manage the group, and although some individuals are natural born leaders, I believe that most leaders can be created. An ongoing process of teaching individuals how to follow, instilling discipline within the individuals, and sociability achieves the development of leaders. I agree more with Hersey and Blanchard's "Situational Leadership Theory" than House's "Path-goal Theory." Leaders must have the ability to become flexible. Different situations require different measures. Therefore, in order for leaders to become effective, they must be able to adjust to every situation. In this research I explained the differences between leadership and management. Although these two fields are interrelated, it is important not to confuse leaders with managers. I also described different sets of personality measures that leaders possess, which help improve the quality and efficiency of the individual's leadership skills. Finally, I described a couple of theories on leadership that are a representation of the psychological view of leadership.

Bibliography

Works Cited · Bartol, Kathryn M., and David C. Martin. Management. Third Edition. The McGraw Hill Companies Inc., 18. · Blank, Warren. The Natural Laws of Leadership. New York AMACOM, 15. · Clark, Kenneth E., and Miriam B. Clark. Measures of Leadership. West Orange, New Jersey Leadership Library of America Inc., 10. · Georgiades, Nick, and Richard Macdonell. Leadership for Competitive Advantage. England John Wiley & Sons, 18. · Kakabadse, Andrew, and Nada Kakabakse. Essence of Leadership. United Kingdom International Thomson Business Press, 1. · Karlof, Bengt. Conflicts of Leadership Good for People of Good for Business? Trans. Alan J Gilderson. Cyprus 16. · Schermerhorn, John R. Jr., James G. Hunt, and Richard N. Osborn. Organizational Behavior. Seventh Edition. John Wiley & Sons, 000.

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My Most Embarrassing Moment

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My Most Embarrassing Moment

September 0, 00, it is 6am and the anticipation of the Eagles VS Cowboys football game, was in the air. This would be my first time attending a football game and considering I am a cowboy's fan the excitement was there. This outing was a treat to myself for my birthday. And it turned into a really embarrassing moment that I will never forget.

I was ready to leave and drive to the stadium by 1000 am. The game started at 400pm. I packed the truck up and headed up the road to Pennsylvania. The drive was long and the clouds were coming in. I thought to my self, I wonder if my seat is under anything to keep me dry. But not to matter, I was so excited about going it didn't matter if I got a little wet. After hours on the road I was almost at the stadium. Driving around looking for the stadium I ended up getting lost. But thanks to a nice stranger he helped me find the way. I was at the football stadium finally. Wow! I thought to myself how great it is to be here. There were thousands of people there. The parking lot was full of people eating, drinking beer, and chanting their team songs. I hung out there for an hour or so and had a few beers from one of the Eagle fans that had a keg in the back of his truck. I didn't tell him I was a Cowboys fan I heard horror stories about the Eagle fans and I wasn't about to risk being beat up or teased. I loved every minute of it. As it ended up, my seat was real close to the field. The rain looked like it was steadily coming towards us and I had no cover or umbrella. I thought I would purchase a plastic poncho or something but they were nowhere to be found. The game started and I had already had five cups of beer. I was feeling great and you could feel the excitement in the stadium.

Two quarters go by and the cowboys are not winning as usual but I still love them. Its half time and everyone is heading to the bathrooms and to fill up their beers and get some good food. So I think to myself I should go to the restroom and fill up my beer also. Well as I proceeded up the stairs that looked like they would go on forever I lost my balance and started to slip. I grabbed the railing but this did me no good. I ended up somehow going backwards on my buttocks down concrete stairs. People everywhere just watching me. I was so embarrassed, when I did get up, everyone started clapping. When I did make it finally up to the restroom, I noticed that a wet spot was on my pants.

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I learned a valuable lesson that day. Don't drink too much beer at a football games. This could result in awkward moments.

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Report Of The Preference Of LBAM For Different Tree Species

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Introduction

What kinds of trees does the light brown apple moth prefer? Is there a real difference between the numbers of apple moths we got associated with different tree species? Does the pheromone affect the behaviors of LBAM actually?

Light brown apple moth adults are variable in color and may be confused with other leaf roller moths. Typical males have a forewing length of 6-10 mm with a light brown area at the base distinguishable from a much darker, red brown area at the tip. The latter may be absent, the moth appearing uniformly light brown, as in the females, with only slightly darker oblique markings distinguishing the area at the tip of the wing. Females have a forewing length of 7-1 mm. Color varies from a uniform light brown, with almost no distinguishing markings. Caterpillars are not easily distinguished from the larvae of other leaf rollers, the green-headed leaf roller and the brown-headed leaf roller, when occurring together in the same habitat.The first caterpillars instar has a dark brown head; all other instars have a light fawn head and prothoracic plate. Over wintering caterpillars are darker. First instar caterpillars are approximately 1.6 mm long, and final instar caterpillars range from 10 to 18 mm in length. The body of a mature larva is medium green with a darker green central stripe and two side stripes.

Pupae are at first green, but become medium brown after rapidly hardening.

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The larvae cause damage to foliage and fruit. Early instars feed on tissue beneath the upper epidermis (surface layer) of leaves, while protected under self-constructed silken webs on the undersurface of leaves. Larger larvae migrate from these positions to construct feeding niches between adjacent leaves, between a leaf and a fruit, in the developing bud, or on a single leaf, where the topical leaf roll develops. The late stage larvae feed on all leaf tissue except main veins.

Superficial fruit damage is common in apple varieties, which form compact fruit clusters. Leaves are webbed to the fruit and feeding injury takes place under the protection of the leaf; or larvae spin up between fruits of a cluster. Internal damage to apple, pear, and citrus fruits is less common, but a young larva may enter the interior of an apple or pear fruit through the calyx or beneath the stem of a citrus fruit.

Aim

Find the preference of light brown apple moth for different tree species.

Hypothesis

The different kinds of tree do not affect the behaviors of the apple moths. The null hypothesis is that there is no difference between the numbers of apple moths associated with different tree species.

Materials & Methods

I used both the pheromone traps and the non-pheromone traps in each kind of trees (the shape of the trap is shown in figure ), which were ash tree, plum tree, apple tree and cherry tree. The bottom of this trap was very sticky. Thus we could catch the apple moths easily when they landed on.

After setup the trap, I went to check the number of apple moths I got every day, and also recorded the weather of each day (data collection).

Finally, the data I got is shown as the following table

Tree Trap Tue Wed Thu Fri Total

Ash Pheromone 16 10 1 0 8

Non-pheromone 0 0 0

Plum Pheromone 4 6 0 0 10

Non-pheromone 0 0 0

Apple Pheromone 4 0 8

Non-pheromone 0 0 0 0 0

Cherry Pheromone 8 0 0 10

Non-pheromone 0 0 0 0 0

Results

Use chi-square test for determining if the apple moth shows significant preference for any of the four species of trees.

Category O E O - E (O - E)⊃ (O - E)⊃/ E

Ash Tree 40 17.5 .5 506.5 8.

Plum Tree 1 17.5 -5.5 0.5 1.7

Apple Tree 8 17.5 -.5 0.5 5.157

Cherry Tree 10 17.5 -7.5 56.5 .14

¦²=70 ¦²=.0

X⊃ =¦²(O - E)⊃/ E = .0 ¡Ö .0

Degree of freedom = 4 ¨C 1=

According to the X⊃ table, state the probability value corresponding to the X⊃ value the probability of X⊃ is much less than 0.1%. Consequently, reject Ho; the data are strongly in favor of HA. There is a real difference between numbers of apple moths associated with different tree species, i.e. the light brown apple moths show significant preference for the ash tree.

At the same the time, there is another interesting tendency as follow

Use chi-square test again for determining if the apple moth shows significant preference for pheromone.

Category O E O - E (O - E)⊃ (O - E)⊃/ E

Pheromone 66 5 1 61 7.457

Non-pheromone 4 5 -1 61 7.457

¦²=70 ¦²=54.14

X⊃ =¦²(O - E)⊃/ E = 54.14 ¡Ö 54.

Degree of freedom = ¨C 1= 1

According to the X⊃ table, state the probability value corresponding to the X⊃ value the probability of X⊃ is much less than 0.1%. Consequently, reject Ho; the data are strongly in favor of HA. There is a real difference between numbers of apple moths associated with pheromone or not, i.e. the light brown apple moths are attracted by pheromone apparently.

Conclusion

Taking factors into consideration, we may safely come to the conclusion that accepts HA (alternative hypothesis), which means there is a real difference between numbers of apple moths associated with different tree species, and the light brown apple moths show significant preference for the ash tree.

Discussion

We can obviously from Figure that there is a dramatically drop on Day 4, and the numbers of apple moths we got from each tree are all equal to 0. Depend on the weather record, a short but heavy rain occurred on day 4, and wind of that day was stronger than days before. Because of this weather situation, the temperature also decreased slightly. The unsuccessful collection on Day 4 is likely to be affected by the change of environment. There can be real different behaviors of apple moths associated with temperature, light and humidity.

The movement of apple moth towards the pheromone can be stated as positive chemo-taxis. (Taxis is a directional movement of a organism in response to an external stimulus). Pheromones are chemicals secreted by an organism into the outside environment that induce a behavioral or physiological response in other individuals of the same species. In insects, they consist of highly specific perfumes, generally derivatives of natural fatty acids closely related to the aromas of fruit. The very specific nature of sex pheromone means that sex pheromone trap can be a very useful tool in insect management.

Reference

Muggleston, S.J. 188. Light brown apple moth, education kit. N.Z. DSIR Entomology Division, Auckland.

http//www.biocontrol.com.au

http//www.hortnet.co.nz

http//www.agric.nsw.gov.au

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Jesus a prophet of islam?

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This is the first chapter of a very interesting book I found called Jesus A prophet of Islam- a commendable effort to study the sacred life of Jesus (pbuh) using both Christian and Muslim sources- A penetrating scholarly study which explores the origins of Christinity by examining all the evidence with thoroughness and care to separate the facts from the myths. It includes a study of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Christian Scripture, Gospel of Barnabas, Quran and Hadeeth. It is the result of thirty years of study! I advise anyone who can get a hold of it to do so... or wait till summer cuz I plan on typing it all up inshAllah. The other chapters are A Historical Account of Jesus, The Gospel of Barnabas, The Shepherd of Hermas, Barnabas and the Early Christians, Early Unitarians in Christianity, Later Unitarians in Christianity, Christianity Today, Jesus in the Quran, Jesus in Hadeeth.

THE UNITARIAN VIEW AND CHRISTIANITY

Historical research has shown that the animism and idol worship of primitive peoples in the world is in all cases a regression from an original unitive belief, and the One-god of Judaism, Christianity and Islam grew up in opposition to many-gods rather than evolving out of them. Thus in any tradition, the pure teaching is to be found at its beginning and what follows is necessarily a decline, and it is from this perspective that the history of Christianity should be viewed. It began with the belief in One God and was then corrupted, and the doctrine of the Trinity came to be accepted. The result was a confusion which led men more and more away from sanity.

In the first century after the disappearance of Jesus, those who followed him continued to affirm the Divine Unity. This is illustrated by the fact that the Shepherd of Hermas, written in about 0 A.D. was regarded as a book of Revelation by the Church. The first of the twelve commandments which it contains begins

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First of all, believe that God is One and that He created all things and organised them and out of what did not exist made all things to be, and He contains all things but alone is Himself uncontained...[The Apostolic Fathers, E.J. Goodspeed]

According to Theodore Zahn, the article of faith up until about 50 A.D. was, I belive in God, the Almighty [Articles of the Apostolic Creed, Theodore Zahn, pp. -7]. Between 180 and 10 A.D. the word Father was added before the Almighty. This was bitterly contested by a number of the leaders of the Church. Bishop Victor and Bishop Zephysius are on record as condemning this movement, since they regarded it an unthinkable sacrilege to add or subtract any word to the Scriptures. They opposed the tendencey to regard Jesus as divine. They laid great stress on the Unity of God as expressed in the original teachings of Jesus and asserted that although he was a prophet, he was essentially a man like other men, even if highly favoured by his Lord. The same faith was held by the Churches which had sprung up in North Africa and West Asia.

As the teaching of Jesus was spread, it came into contact with other cultures and into conflict with those in authority. It began to be assimilated and adapted by these cultures and was also altered to diminsh persecution by the rulers. In Greece, especially, it became metamorphosed, both by its being expressed in a new language for the first time, and by its realignment with the ideas and philosophy of that culture. It was teh many-gods viewpoint of the Greeks which largely contributed to the formulation of this doctrine of the Trinity, together with the gradual elevation of Jesus by some, notably Paul of Tasus, from a prophet to God.

It was only in 5 A.D. that the doctrine of the Trinity was declared to be the orthodox Christian belief. Even then some of those who signed the creed did not believe in it, as they could find no authority for it in the Scriptures. Athanasius, who is considered to be the father of this creed, was himself not very sure of its truth. He admits that, Whenever he forced his understanding to meditate on the divinity of Jesus, his toilsome and unavailing efforts recoiled on themselves- that the more he wrote the less capable was he of expressing his thoughts. At one point he even wrote, There are not three but ONE GOD. His belief in the doctrine of the Trinity was not based on conviction but on policy and apparent necessity.

That this historic decision was based just as much on political expediency as on the faulty reasoning of philosophy is shown by the part played by Constantine, the pagan emperor of Rome, who presided over the council of Nicea. The growing communities of Christians were a force whose opposition he had no wish for, who weakened his Empire and whose support would be invaluable in strengthening it. By remodelling Christianity, he hoped to gain the Churchs support and at the same time end the confusion which had arisen within it and which was the source of yet more convlict within his empire.

The process by which he partially acheived this aim may be illustrated by an incident which occured in the Second World War. Once, as the time for the Muslim festival of the Id drew near, propaganda from Tokyo began to concentrate on an Id prayer that was going to be held in Singapore, then under Japanses occupation. It would be an historic occasion, it was announced, and its effect would be felt throughout the Muslim world. This sudden emphasis on the prayer abruptly stopped after a few days. The mystery was solved when a Japanese prisoner was taken in a skirmish and interrogated. He said that Tojo, the head of the Japansese government, was planning to take on the role of the greates Muslim reformer of modern times. He had a scheme to adjust the teachings of Islam to the requirements of the modern age. It had therefore become necessary, according to him, that the Muslims, instead of facing Mecca in prayer, should start facing Tokyo, which would become the future centre of Islam under Tojo. The Muslims refused this reorientation of Islam, and so the whole project was dropped. As a result, there was no Id prayer allowedi n Singapore that year. Tojo had realised the imoprtance of Islam and he wanted to use it as a means to further his imperialistic designs, but he was unsuccessful. Constantine succeeded where Tojo failed. Rome replaced Jerusalem as the center of Pauline Christianity.

This degeneration of the pure teachings of Jesus, which resulted inevitable in the acceptance of a many-god Christianniy, never went unchallenged. When, in 5 A.D., the doctrine of Trinity was officially proposed as the orthodox Christian doctrine, Arius, one of the leaders of the Christians in North Africa, stood up agains the combined might of Constantine and the Catholic Church and reminded them that Jesus had alawys affirmed the Divine Unity. Constantine tried to crush the troublesome One-God people with all the force and brutality at his command, but he failed. Although, ironically, Constantine himself died a Unitarian, the doctrine of Trinity eventually became officially accepted as the basis of Christianity in Europe. This doctrine caused much confusion among men, many of whom were told to believe it without trying to understand it. Yet it was not possible to stop people from trying to prove aned eplain it intellectually. Broadly speaking, three schools of thought developed. The first is associated with St. Augustine, who lived in the 4th century and was of the view that the doctrine could not be proved but could be illustrated. St. Victor, who lived in the 1th century is associated with the second school, who believed that the docterine could be both demonstrated and illustrated. And the 14th century saw the growht of the third school, which believed that the doctrine of Trinity could be neither illustrated nor proved, but should be blindly accepted and believed.

Although the books into which Jesuss teaching had gone were either completely destroyed, supprressed, or changed in order to avoid any blatant contradictions of the doctrine, a good deal of truth remained in the ones which survived, and therefore to sustain belief in the doctrine of Trinity, there was a shift in emphasis from what the Scriptures said, to what the leaders of the Church said. The doctrine, it was asserted, was based on the special revelation made to the Church, the Bride of Jesus. Thus, for instance, Fr Fulgentio was reprimanded by the Pope in a letter saying Preaching of the Scriptures is a suspicious thing. He who keeps close to the Scriptures will ruin the Catholic faith. In his next letter he was more explicit, warning against too much insistence on the Scriptures ...which is a book if anyone keeps close to, he will quite destroy the Catholic Church. [Tetradymus, John Toland]

The effective abandoning of the teaching of Jesus was largely due to complete obscuring of his historical reality. The Church made religion not only independent of the Scriptures but also independent of Jesus, so that the man Jesus became confused with a mythological Christ. Belief in Jesus, however, does not necessarily mean belief in a resurrected Christ. Whereas the immediate followers of Jesus had based their lives on his example, Pauline Christianity was based on a belief in Christ after his supposed crucifixion, and the life and teaching of Jesus while he was alive was no longer important.

As the established Church distanced itself further and further from the teaching of Jesus, so its leaders became more and more involved in the affairs of those in authority over the land. As the distinctions between what Jesus had taught and what those in authority desired became blurred and began to merge into each other, the Church, while asserting its seprateness from the State, became more and more identified with it, and grew in power. Whereas in the early days the Church was subject to imperial power, once it had compromised iitself completely, the position was reversed.

There was always opposition to these deviations from what Jesus had taught. As the Church became more powerful, it became very dangerous to deny the Trinity, and led to almost certain death. Although Luther left the Roman Church, his revolt was only against the authority of the Pope, rather than against the fundamental doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church. The result was that he founded a new Church and became its head. All the basic Christian doctrines were accepted, and remained. This led to the establishment of a number of Reformed Churches and sects, but pre-Reformation Christianity remained undisturbed. These two main bodies of the Pauline Church have continued to exist up to the present day.

In North Africa and West Asia the teachings of Arius were accepted by the majority of the people who readily embraced Islam when it later came to them. Because they had held to the doctrine of One-God and the pure teachigns of Jesus,, they recognised Islam as the truth.

In Europe the thread of unitarianism within Christianity has never been broken, and the mnovement has in fact grown in strength, surviving the continual and brutal persecution of the established Churches in the past and their indifference today.

More and more people are now aware that the Christianity they know has little to do with the original teaching of Jesus. During the last two centuries the research of the historians has left little room for faith in the Christian mysteries, but the proven fact that the Christ of the established Church has almost nothing to do wiht the Jesus of history does not in itself helpe Christians towards the Truth. The present dilemma of the Christians is illustrated by what the Church historians of this present century write. The fundamental difficulty is, as pointed by Adolf Harnack, that By the fourth century the living Gospel had been masked in Greek phiolosphy. It was the historians mission to pluck off the mask and thus reveal how different had been the original contours of the faith beneath. But then Harnack points out the difficult of fulfilling this task by saying that the doctrinal mask worn long enough can reshape the face of religion The mask acquires a life o its own- the Trinity, the two natures of Christ, infallibilty, and all propositions seconding these dogmas, were the product of historic decisions and of situations that might have turned out quite differently...nevertheless...early or late, product or reshaping fore, this dogma remains what it has been from the beginning, a bad habit of intellectualization which the Christians picked up from the Greek when he fled from the Jews [Outline of the History of Dogma, Adolf Harnack]

Harnack enlarges on his theme in another book, where he admits that

...the fourth Gospel does not emanate or profess to emanate from the apostle John, who cannot be taken as an historical authority... the author of the fourth Gospel acted with sovereign freedom, transposed events and put them in a strange light. He drew up the discussions himself and illustrated great thoughts with imaginary situations. He further refers to the work of the famous Christian historian, David Strauss, whom he describes as having almost destroyed the historic credibility not only of the fourth but also of the first three Gospels as well. [What is Christianity?, Adolf Harnack, p. 0]

According to Johannes Lehmann, another historian, the writers of the four accepted Gospels describe a different Jesus from the one who can be identified by historic reality. Lehman quotes Heinz Zahrnt who points out the consequences of this

If historical research could prove that an irreconcilable antithesis exists between the historical Jesus and Christ as preached, and therefore that belief in Jesus has no support in Jesus himself, that would not only be absolutely fatal theologically, as N.A Dahl says, but would also mean the end of all Christology. Yet I am convinced that even then we theologians would be able to find a way out- was there ever a time when we couldnt? - but we are either lying now or would by lying then [The Jesus Report, J. Lehman (quoting from Krewz Verlag, Stuttgart, nd ed., 160, p. 11)]

While these few short quotations illustrate the dilemma Christianity is in today, the words of Zahrnt also demonstrate something far more serious which underlies this that it is possible to get so involved with the details of what became of Jesuss teaching and the Churches and sects which followed after him, that the original pupose of his teaching is overlooked or forgotten. Thus Theodore Zahn, for instance, illustrates the bitter conflicts within the established Churches. He points out that the Roman Catholics accuse the Greek Orthodox Church of remodelling the text of the holy Scriptures by additions and subtractions with good and bad intentions, the Greeks in turn point out that the Catholics themselves in places depart very far from the original text, and, in spite of their differences, they combine to accuse the non-conformist Christians of deviating from the true way and condemn them as hereteics, and the heretics in their turn accuse the Catholics of having recoined the Truth like forgers. He concludes, Do not facts support these accusations? [Articles of the Apostolic Creed, Theodore Zahn]

Jesus himself is completely forgotten. Those who are aware of the degeneration that has taken place and who wish in all sincerity to return to and live by the original teaching of Jesus are prevented from doing so because the original teaching in its totality has disappeared and is irrecoverable.

Erasmus had this to say

The ancients philosophied very little about divine things... Formerly faith was in life rather than in profession of creeds.. When faith came to be in writings rather than in hearts, then there were almost as many faiths as men. Articles increased and sincerity decreased. Contentions grew hot and love grew cold. The doctrine of Christ which at first knew no hair-splitting came to depend on the aid of philosophy. This was the first stage in the decline of the Church.

Thus the Church was forced to explain what could not be expressed in words, and recourse was taken by both sides to with the support of the Emperor. Erasmus, commenting on this, continued

The injection of the authority of the Emperor into this affair did not greatly aid the sincerity of faith.. When faith is in the mouth rather than in the heart, when the solid knowledge of sacred Scriptures fails us, nevertheless by terrorization we drive men to believe what they do not believe, to love what they do not love, to know what they do not know. That which is forced cannot be sincere. [Erasmi Epistolai, 14 ed. P.S. Allen, V, pp. 17-]

Erasmus understood that the first Christians, the immediate followers of Jesus, had a recognition of the Unity which they never had to express, and that when his teaching spread and conflict between the Churches grew up, the mn of understanding were forced to try and explain their knowledge of Reality. They had by then lost the teaching of Jesus in its totality and the language of Unity that went with it. They only had recourse to the vocabulaty and terminology of Greek phiolosophy which looked not to Unity but to a tripartite view of existence. And so simple and pure trust in Reality became inevitably couched in a language foreign to Jesus, and led to the formulation of the doctrine of the Trinity, with the deification of Jesus and the Holy Spirit. Confusion and schism were the inevitable results which followed when men lost sight of the Unity of Existence.

This understanding is essential to anyone who wants to know who Jesus was and what he really taught, together with the knowledge that once people no longer have recourse to all the everyday actions of a prophet, which are no less than the embodiment of his teaching, they are in loss, whether they believe in the doctrine of the Trininty or vocally affirm the Divine Unity.

Surah Al-Anam Ayah

And the life of this world is nothing but play and amusement. But far better is the house in the Hereafter for those who are Al­Muttaqun (the pious). Will you not then understand?

Surah Al-Ankabut Ayah 64

And this life of the world is only amusement and play! Verily, the home of the Hereafter, that is the life indeed (i.e. the eternal life that will never end), if they but knew

Surah Muhammad Ayah 6

The life of this world is but play and pastime, but if you believe (in the Oneness of Allah Islamic Monotheism), and fear Allah, and avoid evil, He will grant you your wages, and will not ask you your wealth.

Surah Al-Hadid Ayah 0

Know that the life of this world is only play and amusement, pomp and mutual boasting among you, and rivalry in respect of wealth and children, as the likeness of vegetation after rain, thereof the growth is pleasing to the tiller; afterwards it dries up and you see it turning yellow; then it becomes straw. But in the Hereafter (there is) a severe torment (for the disbelievers, evil-doers), and (there is) Forgiveness from Allah and (His) Good Pleasure (for the believers, good-doers), whereas the life of this world is only a deceiving enjoyment.

The Prophet (saw) said, There will be none among you but will be talked to by Allah on the Day of Resurrection, without there being an interpreter between him and Him (Allah) . He will look and see nothing ahead of him, and then he will look (again for the second time) in front of him, and the (Hell) Fire will confront him. So, whoever among you can save himself from the Fire, should do so even with one half of a date (to give in charity). (Saheeh Bukhari)

Abdullah bin Umar said, Allahs Apostle took hold of my shoulder and said, Be in this world as if you were a stranger or a traveler. The sub-narrator added Ibn Umar used to say, If you survive till the evening, do not expect to be alive in the morning, and if you survive till the morning, do not expect to be alive in the evening, and take from your health for your sickness, and (take) from your life for your death. (Saheeh Bukhari)

Imaam Ahmad ibn Hanbal, radhiallaahu `anhu, narrated that Abu-d-Dardaa', radhiallaahu `anhu, once said If only you knew what you will certainly see upon your death, you would never again eat a single bite out of a craving appetite, and you would never again drink an extra sip of water for the pleasure of unquenchable and insatiable thirst. Hence, you will remain outdoor in perpetuity, bewildered and awaiting the unexpected, and you will never again seek comfort in a shelter or seek a shade. You will wander aimlessly and climb the hilltops of every mountain, you will look up towards the heavens and beseech your Lord for mercy, and you will beat on your chest and cry endlessly, and you will wish that you were a little vegetable - a pant which is protected to grow, and then plucked to be eaten by a hungry person passing along.

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Superstitions

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Superstitions are thought to be irrational and resulting from either ignorance or fear of the unknown. It implies a belief in unseen and unknown forces that can be influenced by objects and rituals. Some believe that superstitions can take control of their life. Superstitions have a way of making their way throughout the years. It's in our human nature to come up with something to believe in, however obscure and ridiculous it may be. Many of these superstitions can dramatically affect a person's life.

There are countless pages of superstitions and no one believes in the same ones as others. Superstitions vary according to your religion, your culture and the way you live. Some of them we do without thinking. For example someone sneezes, and many nearby will automatically respond with a hearty, Bless you! When we react to that sneeze with a blessing, we are continuing a superstition that is hundreds, perhaps thousands, of years old. Back in the age of Elizabeth, everyone knew that when you opened your mouth to sneeze, you gave the devil an entrance into your body. The blessing warded off any possibility of harm, for of course no demon could remain in a place where one Christian blessed another. What we now do from politeness, early Englishmen did to protect their fellows from spiritual harm.

Superstitions are involved in everything. When dreaming, most people believe that what was in their dream reflects what is going to happen in their life. To see a baby in your dream signifies innocence, warmth and new beginnings. A love affair may be blooming for you in your near future. You will also make new and fun friends. If a woman dreams she is nursing a baby, she will be deceived by the one she trusts the most. To dream of a clean, white bed denotes the end of worries. Dreaming of a cat is a generally unfortunate omen and it shows treachery as well as a run of bad luck. If you should dream of a deceased person and this person speaks only to you, pay close attention to what the spirit is telling you as it could be very important to you. A light shining out of the dark, or a flashlight beam, shows that you will finally find the truth in a situation or the answer to a personal problem that you have been searching for. If the light is dim, you will only find part of the solution. Dreaming of a marriage, or a wedding, is the sign of a death in the family. If the marriage was between strangers, then the death pertains to a not too close acquaintance or friend. This can go on forever because all people have different dreams and the only thing that comes to my mind at the moment is what is going to happen to someone like me who doesn't remember most of my dreams?

On the other hand most people believe in common superstitions which evolved by time. Like when seeing a black cat.

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The Development of Anti-Semitism in Nazi Germany

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Hitler's hatred towards the Jews was known as "anti-Semitism." When Hitler came to power in Germany, he preached to his followers that "the Jews are the image of the devil" and he blamed them for all of the problems in the world. When Hitler was 18, he arrived in Vienna hoping to get accepted into the Academy of Fine Arts as he wanted to become an artist. When he was rejected, he blamed the Jews for his setbacks. Hitler believed that the Germans were the superior race and that job positions and money were wasted on people like the Jews. He despised them and did not want them to be successful in his country. By the time Hitler left Vienna, he was a full-fledged anti-Semite and in his autobiography "Mein Kampf," which he wrote in 14, he made his hatred of the Jews known. Hitler believed that the Jewish people were the "eternal enemy" and that in order to save the German people; he had to exterminate them. Not only some of the Jews, but all of them.

After World War I, Germany was devastated and the German people had lost all hope. Adolf Hitler gave them faith and he reunited the masses under a common bond of hatred towards the Jews. He blamed them for Germanys loss of World War I. He told the German people that they could have won the first world war if Germany had not been stabbed in the back by the Jews and their conspirators. When Hitler established the Nazi Party, he had many followers as people sought hope in him after the war. In his emotional and persuasive speeches, he made his promise to murder the Jewish people of Europe. After Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany on January 0th 1, his attack on the Jews commenced. He preached to his SS troops that The Jew is a parasite. Wherever he flourishes, the people die...elimination of the Jew from our community is to be regarded as an emergency defense measure. In Germany, hundreds of Jews were murdered and over 5,000 fled. On April 1st 1, the Nazi boycott of Jewish stores began. Their stores were vandalized and Germans were discouraged from buying anything from a Jew. On May 10th 1, thousands of books were burnt in the cities throughout Germany. Anything that had been written by a Jew or by a foreign writer was thrown into the fire. In regards to this event, Heinrich Heine who was a German-Jewish poet from 177-1856 said "Where one burns books, one will, in the end, burn people."

On August nd 14, after the death of the German president Von Hindenburg, Hitler declared himself the "leader" of Germany and using his powers he made the German military the servant of a criminal regime and fully implicated it in the destruction of the Jews. In 15, Hitler passed the Nurembourg Laws which took German citizenship away from them, banned marriage and sexual relationships between Jews and non-Jews in Germany and forced all Jews to wear a yellow Star of David on their clothes or they would be shot. The Nazi Party began to establish interrogation and torture chambers in basements of regular apartment buildings throughout Berlin. The first concentration camp was opened at Dachau, a suburb of Munich to concentrate "all communist and social democrat officials who cannot be allowed to remain free as they continue to agitate unrest." The Nazis were now in firm control of Germany and violence struck the Jews in German cities.

In 18, riots broke out throughout Germany after a Jew had murdered a German diplomat in Paris. Thousands of Jewish shops were smashed and thousands of Jews were arrested. Nazi propaganda made people believe that the Jews were a threat and that they should be sent to concentration camps or be humiliated and maltreated in public such as forcing them to clean the streets with toothbrushes while being kicked and laughed at by the non-Jews. Thousands of Jewish shops, synagogues and houses continued to be destroyed and when the Second World War began in 1, the Nazi Party's anti-Semitism took a murderous turning point. After the invasion of Poland and Russia more Jews came under Nazi control and in 141, Hitler ordered the annihilation of the entire Jewish population in Europe. The Nazis referred to this program as the "Final Solution" of the "Jewish Problem." In March 141, Adolf Hitler said that "This struggle is one of ideologies and racial differences and will have to be conducted with unprecedented unmerciful and unrelenting harshness."

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In July, local anti-Semites abused Jewish women in the streets of Lvov, Ukraine, dozens were murdered and women were raped. On July th and 0th after the Germans had captured the city, 5000 Jews were rounded up and massacred by the Utoranian militia. On the nd of August 141, W. Sakowicz who was the president of Ponary, Poland and was later murdered by the Nazis said "There were terrible tortures before shooting. Nobody buried the murdered. The people were herded straight into the pit, the corpses were trampled on. Many of the wounded writhed with pain. Nobody finished them off." The Jewish people were constantly being murdered by SS troops and were thrown onto the streets or into huge pits of hundreds of corpses. Erich Fuchs also explains another way in which Jews were murdered; "I installed shower heads in the gas chambers. The nozzles were not connected to any water pipes; they would serve as camouflage for the gas chamber. For the Jews who were gassed it would seem as if they were being taken to baths and for disinfection." Gas chambers were built for the mass murder of thousands of Jews and were established in all of the death camps around Europe.

When the Allies began to advance, they discovered the horrors and the atrocities of the death camps and in 145, after the war had ended and the Germans had lost, people around the world found it hard to believe that this inhumane, cold-blooded extermination had ever taken place. A few soldiers who were members of the Nazi Party said that they feared their leaders and were simply doing their jobs and obeying orders. Other soldiers felt that killing the Jews did not matter because Hitler had brainwashed them into thinking that since the Jews were not regarded as human, it was not relevant whether they died or not. By the time the German government fell, its leaders and its followers had murdered an estimated six million European Jews as well as untold numbers of Slavs, Gypsies, homosexuals and any others who did not fit the perfect "Aryan mold." The systematic Nazi destruction of almost an entire race is known as the Holocaust and will always be remembered for the savagery and cruelty that was inflicted on so many by so few.

Bibliography

1. Mazour, Anatole G, Peoples, John M. World History People and Nations. Holt,

Rhinehart & Winston, Inc. Orlando, Florida 1.

. Quotes taken from the Imperial War Museum

. Holocaust handouts

4. Slater, Nathalie. Anti-Semitism. 1

http//www.first-vbs.at/projekte/004_4c_wwweb/natalie_anti-semitism.htm

5. Robinson, Plater. Deathly Silence Guide Everyday People in the Holocaust. 17

http//www.tulane.edu/-so-inst/d.htm.

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